[MPWG] RE: ] Science paper on ginseng

[Center for Sustainable Resources]

Sonya, you are correct that there are many factors involved in ginseng, 
factors that are far more complex than anyone understands. That is why such 
issues need to be approached holistically.
As for a decline in stature, that would be questionable. What is clear is 
that a decline in habitat for many plants has happened during the past 100 
years.
There is but one specie of american ginseng. While they seem to be good at 
finding genome types etc. thus far it means nothing especially when 
considering that no known wild ginseng exist. In fact identifying a single 
ginseng type has no relevence because no method of determining where that 
ginseng originated from exists. During recent history it is clear that 
people have been planting ginseng for at least 100 years. Ginseng like any 
other plant adapts.
Environment as a whole is what makes the difference and certain biological 
links concerning how ginseg moves and reproduces.
for example they want people to replant berries in dig holes and he contends 
this is the best way to perpetuate the ginseng. The production rate from 
seeds planted like this has to be in the single digits. A much better method 
would be to take those berries and stratify them in sand prior to planting 
or simply carry stratified seed as many do nowadays. The site is what is 
important not the seed or plant it came from. I have plants from seed from 
numerous sources around the country and have never noticed anything 
different about how any of it grows, just differences in how well sites 
perform.
We as growers know that all too often research has a predetermined outcome 
that the researcher is looking for to validate his or her claims and beliefs 
and that this method of gathering data in isolation carries no more merit 
than anyone else's claims.
The entire idea of a cliimax forest with huge stands of ginseng etc is a 
myth. Nature functioning in wholes has always been changing. Edges have 
existed here with or without man's influence. Open areas had to be here or 
the animals that existed here could not have survived.
If climate change is a reality that is one issue that will alter ginseng 
perhaps within a 100 years.
However, with this line of research I am sure the blame would be placed on 
the deer herd.
Who is to say that these changes are not part of a normal pattern and that 
they have not happened in the past. Evidence suggest they have happened. 
Ginseng may be a relic of the ice age like trout on their way out.     fred 
hays

>From: Sonya <msredsonya at earthlink.net>
>To: MPWG at lists.plantconservation.org
>Subject: [MPWG] RE: ] Science paper on ginseng
>Date: Sat, 12 Feb 2005 05:58:24 -0500
>
>Some miscellaneous heres and theres that I have noted in regard to the 
>ginseng issue, deer browsing, and their control/approach and whatnot.
>
>I read several of Mr. McGraw's previous studies on ginseng, the latest one, 
>the Fish and Wildlife reports and various other channels of information 
>about ginseng and some of the peripheral background issues. I think there 
>are other things factoring in here besides the deer browsing. (((Decline in 
>stature of American Ginseng plants over two centuries.MCGRAW, J.B.* West 
>Virginia University Morgantown WV 26506 USA ^1 ^snip--- Assuming herbarium 
>specimens are representative of a consistent portion of natural 
>populations, either direct or indirect effects of environmental change or 
>human harvest could explain the rapid change in ginseng 
>stature.http://abstracts.co.allenpress.com/pweb/esa2000/abstracts/JAM-3-81-5.html 
>)))
>
>I snipped some of these findings and things that I found to be of note or 
>to be pertinent into the email.........I did not summarize the material, 
>everyone can conclude from the material what they would like........ 
>Another paper, different conclusion, and a different approach to to 
>topic.........The creation of a seed bank derived of all the species and 
>varieties...
>https://drum.umd.edu/dspace/ bitstream/1903/1901/1/umi-umd-1881.pdf.......
>
>
>
>
>Not all species of ginseng would fall under CITES II 
>classification......there are some species that are exempt. There was an 
>exception granted by the Fish and Wildlife department under the CITES 
>Regulations in 2003 to a commonly used format in relation to ginseng as it 
>relates to the Field-cultivated ginseng, per their use of references as it 
>being a commonly used format for growing Ginseng. Per their use of standard 
>protocol--- ginseng shown to be proven as artificially propagated “under 
>controlled conditions with human intervention” would fall outside the CITES 
>regulations.
>
>Please see the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, International Affairs 
>December 11, 2003 MEMORANDUM I posted below
>.....as well as the Ginseng Findings from 2003 and 2004 
><http://international.fws.gov/ginseng/2003-2004ginsengfinding.htm> /U.S. 
>Fish and Wildlife Service, /International Affairs which makes note of 
>several references to the poaching of ginseng as well as over harvesting of 
>ginseng asother issues regarding ginseng that would need to be 
>addressed....
>
>
>
>http://international.fws.gov/ginseng/Artpropginseng.htm
>U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, International Affairs
>December 11, 2003
>
>MEMORANDUM
>
>To: Chief, Division of Management Authority
>From: Chief, Branch of Consultation and Monitoring, Division of Scientific 
>Authority
>Subject: General advice on artificially propagated American ginseng (Panax 
>quinquefolius L.) from States with approved CITES export programs
>
>The Division of Scientific Authority has determined that specimens of 
>field-cultivated American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) and its 
>recognizable parts, including roots of any age, reported from the following 
>States: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 
>Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North 
>Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, 
>Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, will be considered 
>artificially propagated as defined by CITES Resolution Conf. 11.11.
>
>This general advice does not apply to woods-grown (woods-cultivated) and 
>wild-simulated American ginseng. The Division of Scientific Authority has 
>been unable to determine that the methods used to produce woods-grown and 
>wild-simulated American ginseng consistently meet the criteria of CITES 
>Resolution Conf. 11.11 for artificially propagated specimens. Therefore, we 
>have included specimens of woods-grown and wild-simulated American ginseng 
>in our non-detriment finding on the export of wild American ginseng.
>
>We will continue to monitor State reports, and actual exports of cultivated 
>ginseng roots, with the understanding that this general advice may be 
>modified in the future, if deemed necessary, based on any new pertinent 
>information that becomes available.
>
>American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is hereafter referred to simply 
>as “ginseng.”
>
>
>BASIS FOR ADVICE
>
>
>Ginseng was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade 
>in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1975. Ginseng is a 
>slow-growing, long-lived herbaceous perennial indigenous to eastern North 
>America, occurring in southern Canada (Ontario and Quebec), west to South 
>Dakota and Oklahoma, and south to Georgia (Small and Catling 1999; 
>NatureServe 2001). The States of Idaho, North Dakota, Oregon, and 
>Washington, included in this general advice, are outside the species’ 
>range.
>
>
>Ginseng has long been recognized as a valuable horticultural crop because 
>of the properties of its roots for both herbal and medicinal purposes 
>(Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2003). The United States is the world's 
>second-largest producer of field-cultivated ginseng (Agriculture and 
>Agri-Food Canada 2003). The major center for field-cultivated ginseng in 
>the United States is Wisconsin (mostly in Marathon County), where 80% 
>(approximately 3,800 acres) of the cultivated ginseng in the United States 
>is grown (Hankins 1997; Small and Catling 1999).
>
>
>Ginseng cultivation in the United States began sometime around the 1880s as 
>wild ginseng was becoming scarce (Tellico Plains Mountain Press 2003). By 
>the early 1900s, the U.S. Department of Agriculture recommended the 
>cultivation of ginseng for its highly valued root (Koehler 1912). Growers 
>originally collected ginseng seed from local wild populations for 
>cultivation (Boehm et al. 1999; Proctor et al. 1999), and also transplanted 
>wild roots into gardens (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2003). Further 
>expansion of ginseng was achieved by planting seeds produced from 
>wild-collected plant material grown in cultivation (Agriculture and 
>Agri-Food Canada 2003).
>
>
>The optimum seeding rate for field-cultivated ginseng is between 80 and 100 
>pounds of seed per acre (Brun 1999). There are approximately 8,000 seeds 
>per pound. Field-cultivated ginseng is usually harvested by the third or 
>fourth year because of diseases that threaten older plantings (Beyfuss 
>1999; Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2003). Yields range from 2,000 to 
>4,000 pounds of dried roots per acre (Hankins 1997; Brun 1998).
>
>Roots of field-cultivated plants are usually cream colored, smooth and fat 
>in shape, and exhibit few concentric rings as compared to wild ginseng 
>roots, and typically have a shorter rhizome (neck) than wild ginseng roots 
>(Hankins 1997).
>
>Ginseng may be exported under the exemption for artificially propagated 
>specimens if it meets the specific criteria established in CITES Resolution 
>Conf. 11.11. We have determined that specimens of cultivated ginseng and 
>its recognizable parts, including roots of any age, reported from the 
>States covered in this general advice will be considered artificially 
>propagated as defined by the CITES Resolution Conf. 11.11. Our decision is 
>based on our evaluation of the following known cultivation practices used 
>to produce ginseng in the United States. [Criteria of Resolution Conf. 
>11.11 are shown in italics.]
>
>a) The term ‘artificially propagated’ shall be interpreted to refer only to 
>live plants grown from seeds, cuttings, divisions, callus tissues or other 
>plant tissues, or other propagules under controlled conditions; and that 
>‘controlled conditions’ means in a non-natural environment that is 
>intensively manipulated by human intervention for the purpose of producing 
>selected species or hybrids.
>
>Field-cultivated ginseng is grown as a monoculture in raised beds under 
>artificial shade of 70-80% (Beyfuss 1999). Cultivation techniques used for 
>field-grown ginseng include standard horticultural practices consisting of 
>mechanical tillage, fertilization, weed control, irrigation, and 
>pesticides. Specialized tractors, sprayers, and diggers have become common 
>on larger corporate ginseng farms that constitute the bulk of the industry. 
>Ginseng seed and/or 1-3-year-old transplant roots (rootlets) are 
>commercially grown on farms (Beyfuss 1999). Planting artificially 
>stratified seed is the principal method used to propagate ginseng.1
>
>b) the cultivated parental stock used for artificial propagation must be:
>i) established in accordance with the provisions of CITES and relevant 
>national laws and in a manner not detrimental to the survival of the 
>species in the wild; and
>
>Ginseng farms and nurseries are regulated by the States covered in this 
>advice, and therefore must operate in accordance with all applicable State 
>and Federal regulations. Growers of field-cultivated ginseng either produce 
>their own seed or transplant roots or obtain such propagules from other 
>commercial operations.
>
>ii) managed in such a way that long-term maintenance of the cultivated 
>stock is
>guaranteed.
>
>Field-cultivated ginseng has been intensively grown in the United States 
>for over 100 years. There are approximately 3,800 acres of field-cultivated 
>ginseng intensively grown under artificial shade (Hankins 1997). Commercial 
>ginseng growers maintain a sufficient number of cultivated parental stock 
>plants to meet their long-term planting needs, or purchase commercially 
>available propagules (seeds and transplant roots) for outplanting.
>
>c) seeds shall be regarded as artificially propagated only if they are 
>taken from the specimens acquired in accordance with the provisions of 
>paragraph (b) and grown under controlled conditions; or from parental stock 
>artificially propagated in accordance with paragraph (a).
>
>Ginseng seed is artificially propagated from cultivated parental stock, 
>that is, grown under controlled conditions (fertilization, irrigation, 
>tillage, pest and weed control) in a non-natural environment (raised beds 
>under artificial shade). Cultivated ginseng plants require a minimum of 
>three years of growth to produce seeds for outplanting. Planting 
>artificially stratified seed is the principal method of propagating 
>field-cultivated ginseng.
>
>
>d) all other parts and derivatives shall be regarded as being artificially 
>propagated only if they are taken from specimens that have been 
>artificially propagated in accordance with the provisions of paragraph (a).
>
>As described in this general advice, standard horticultural practices are 
>used to grow field-cultivated ginseng; therefore, we consider all parts of 
>such plants as artificially propagated.
>____________________________
>1Stratified seed is subjected to a 12 month period of storage in moist sand 
>with a warm/cold treatment to after-ripen the embryo of the seed before 
>germination can occur.
>==========================================
>Illegal poaching of Ginseng.........
>
>snip-----------http://www.naturalresources.umd.edu/Pages/BO_Fall2002.
>Security Measures
>The greatest threat to a crop of wild simulated ginseng is human theft. 
>Criminals who think nothing of "No Trespassing" signs know they are more 
>likely to find more ginseng on someone’s property than in public forests 
>where legal gatherers search. Many will wait just prior to the harvest. One 
>advantage for growers in the piedmont region is that many residents are 
>unfamiliar with ginseng or its value. The references provide ideas on 
>improving security for your ginseng patch.
>
>
>snip---------
>
>In the last 10 years, park law enforcement rangers have seized nearly 
>11,000 illegally harvested ginseng roots in the national park. Park staff 
>believe that only a small percentage of the roots actually poached from the 
>park are detected, despite routine ranger patrols. In an effort to track 
>the health of ginseng populations throughout the park, staff of the 
>Resource Management and Science Division have weighed and dated more than 
>9,000 of the confiscated roots. Undamaged roots are then replanted for 
>monitoring. Confiscated roots as young as one to three years have been 
>processed. Sadly, plants younger than five years of age are usually not 
>mature and have not had the opportunity to contribute seeds to the 
>population (the only method of reproduction for this species).
>http://www2.nature.nps.gov/YearInReview/yir2001/05_risks/05_2_rock.html
>
>snip-----http://www.imagesbuilder.com/gsmnp/poachers.html
>
>Superintendent Karen P. Wade reported that over the past several years 
>ginseng poaching has become one of the most frequent and damaging resource 
>crimes committed in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Its continued high 
>commercial value has directly contributed to an increase in theft of the 
>plant
>
>
>snip-------------http://www.npca.org/magazine/2005/winter/poaching3.asp
>
>Ken Johnson, a recently retired criminal investigator based at Shenandoah 
>National Park, cites a pilot project in which database information from 
>scientists is merged with law enforcement violator information to 
>understand patterns such as bear and ginseng poaching, then predict where 
>violators will be and successfully intercept them.
>
>Ginseng is federally protected as a species of "special concern, threatened 
>due to exploitation." The plant can be legally harvested with proper 
>permission on private and some public lands, including three national 
>forests that adjoin the Great Smokies. Prime dried wild roots from legal 
>harvest areas sell for $350 to $400 per pound and must be certified for 
>transport across state or international boundaries. Ginseng roots 
>constitute a large percentage of the
>$7 billion annual world trade in medicinal herbs. Much of the herbs traded 
>on the black market come from the Appalachian Mountains. Certain Asian 
>buyers covet the ginseng roots stolen from national parks for their purity 
>and physical appearance, important aspects of traditional healing 
>treatments and use as an aphrodisiac.
>
>"I can't imagine people walking into the Smithsonian and carrying away 
>artifacts," says Jim Northup, yet he knows casual thieves and 
>well-organized crime groups are stripping Appalachian parks of ginseng, 
>goldenseal, and orchids. Illegal harvest of ginseng was so prevalent in the 
>Smokies during the 1990s that rangers seized 11,000 illicit roots.
>
>During the last eight years, Jim Corbin, a North Carolina Department of 
>Agriculture plant protection specialist, has developed a simple procedure 
>for tagging ginseng with benign material that contains magnetic coded 
>marking chips and color-coded fluorescent dye. Together these ingredients 
>produce an easily detected signature that infiltrates ginseng tissue and 
>reveals the exact location plants have grown. Diggers apprehended with 
>contraband roots are cited, and dealers who purchase them may lose entire 
>stocks worth thousands of dollars.
>
>Teams of state and Park Service personnel blitz the Smokies annually, 
>marking large numbers of plants in diverse locations, widening a protective 
>barrier that is repelling poachers. "What we are doing is working," says 
>Corbin. "When the program began, we started monitoring a stand of young 
>ginseng located where poachers would plunder it-those plants have since 
>tripled in size. In the past three years, we've also launched a serious 
>crackdown on ginseng dealers [including use of canines trained to sniff out 
>the roots], and all of them have been compliant."
>
>Encouraged by this successful marking program, resource managers at Blue 
>Ridge Parkway, Shenandoah, Mammoth Cave, Cumberland Gap, and several 
>Canadian provincial parks are attaching similar signature markers to 
>ginseng and other high-dollar poaching targets such as goldenseal, black 
>cohosh, blue cohosh, bloodroot, lady's slipper orchids, lilies, trillium, 
>and galax. Similar technology has been tested to deter theft of petrified 
>wood from preserves in Arizona.
>
>=============
>
>9. The U.S. Forest Service in North Carolina has implemented a marking 
>program, similar to that used by the National Park Service, to curtail the 
>illegal poaching of ginseng in wilderness and other protected areas 
>(National Forest in North Carolina, August 29, 2000).
>
>10. Recently, the Appalachian Ginseng Foundation of Kentucky identified 
>American ginseng poaching to be a major threat to private landowners and 
>public wooded lands (Appalachian Ginseng Foundation Newsletter, 2001, 
>No.6).
>
>
>
>
>snip----------
>
>Ohio Ginseng Policy Work Update
>
>By Chip Carroll
>
>In 2003 the W.K. Kellogg Foundation funded Appalachian Ohio non-profit 
>group Rural Action (www.ruralaction.org), to work on state ginseng policy. 
>Through Rural Action Forestry’s experience in working with medicinal plant 
>producers since 1998, it was clear that poaching was the biggest problem 
>facing not only growers but also wild ginseng populations. Rural Action’s 
>Forestry Program decided to focus on ginseng poaching and the current 
>policies that govern ginseng harvesting in Ohio.
>
>The Forestry Program at Rural Action had actually been working on the 
>ginseng poaching issue since 1999, focusing primarily on getting the 
>opening date of harvest season for ginseng moved back and working with 
>growers on cultivation and security issues. A committee of local growers, 
>harvesters and botanists has provided guidance along with way in developing 
>a plan for pursuing this issue.
>
>The committee has come up with several ideas. These include developing a 
>stricter, more enforceable ginseng poaching law in Ohio, generating income 
>from ginseng harvesting to help the state enforce the laws via licensing 
>for harvesters, and doing educational outreach to growers, harvesters, 
>judges, prosecutors and law enforcement personnel. We have been able to 
>meet with and garner some support from the Ohio Division of Natural 
>Resources (ODNR), who in 2003 moved the opening of harvest season from 
>August 15th to September 1st. We have begun an educational campaign 
>including the development of a website dedicated to ginseng poaching issues 
>(www.growginseng.org), development of educational materials and handouts, 
>and a new “Grow it, don’t poach it – Protect Appalachian Heritage” ginseng 
>t-shirt.
>
>Currently we are trying to collect stories from individuals who have been 
>poached and do some interviews with anyone willing to share a story about 
>ginseng growing, harvesting and poaching. We are going to be producing an 
>educational video in 2004 that will be aimed at educating the judges, 
>prosecutors and law enforcement personnel about the importance of combating 
>the poaching problem here in Ohio.
>
>If you would like to get involved or have a story to share, please contact 
>Chip Carroll at (740) 742-4401 or chipc at ruralaction.org 
><mailto:chipc at ruralaction.org>
>
>-----------------------------------
>
>snip-------http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/forestry/ginseng.htm
>*John A. Scott, Jr., Sam Rogers, and David Cooke 
><mailto:David.Cooke at mail.wvu.edu>
>WVU Cooperative Extension Service Agents
>Bobbi Lynn Fry Research Assistant, Mercer County *June 1995
>
>
>      *Predator Control*
>
>Predators, both animal and human, are one of the two main limitations to 
>growing ginseng. In areas where deer, wild turkey, and livestock are a 
>problem, fencing may be required. Use a low, woven-wire fence topped with a 
>strand or two of electric fence. Leave alleys every 100 feet to allow deer 
>and turkey passageways. Fencing also may help keep human predators from 
>digging the crop.
>
>In seed production, watch the seeds when they begin to turn red. If you 
>have squirrels in the area, they can rapidly destroy your seed crop. Look 
>for seed hulls on the ground and entire seed heads destroyed. You may have 
>to eliminate the squirrels. Also, wild turkeys can be a real problem during 
>seed production. Woven-wire fence will eliminate most turkey problems.
>
>In areas where livestock graze or could graze by accident, make sure to 
>fence your patches. Livestock damage comes from the animals eating the 
>ginseng and trampling the plants.
>
>
>      *Security*
>
>Security is very important. A major problem with security from humans in 
>West Virginia is the attitude that many people have concerning the 
>ownership of ginseng. Many feel that since ginseng is a wild plant, they 
>have the right to hunt and dig it on anyone's land. Even law enforcement 
>officers are reluctant to arrest trespassers or thieves in ginseng 
>territory. With this prevalent attitude, security is a real problem.
>
>First, tell no one you are raising ginseng. Also, you may want to cut the 
>leaves and stems off in the fall before hunting season. This may help keep 
>people from accidentally finding your patch.
>
>Some growers are experimenting with video cameras, alarm systems, guard 
>dogs, and high tensile electric fencing. Most rely on being around the 
>premises. However, this is false hope. Ginseng has been stolen from patches 
>on the edges of home lawns.Another strategy is to give roots to neighbors 
>to plant so they also will be alert to strangers or suspicious people in 
>the area. This places everyone in the area as growers of ginseng, no matter 
>how small the patch.
>
>One big problem with security is the time required to grow ginseng. Other 
>people can watch your patch develop and dig it before you do. Therefore, 
>when the patch is of harvest age, you must dig it first.As you develop your 
>ginseng, check with your Farm Service Center or insurance company to see if 
>crop insurance is available. Also, a grower can call all dealers when a 
>significant amount of roots are stolen and ask them to contact him or her 
>when the roots show up. Most diggers will try to sell roots for wild. This 
>tactic is very easy to detect. Wild-simulated roots are all the same age, 
>and woods-cultivated roots can be easily identified by characteristics and 
>a soil test. Some buyers can tell who produced the roots by just looking at 
>them.
>
>Also, remember that law enforcement officials will do very little if your 
>land is not posted. Make sure you place the posted signs correctly, that 
>they have the necessary information, and that they are spaced at proper 
>distances.Many growers are planting totally in the wild situation in order 
>not to disturb the forest; this may conceal the location better. Others are 
>planting a large area and are willing to allow some to be stolen.There is 
>no miracle security cure-all. One must deal with the problems associated 
>with security.
>
>
>      *Pest Control*
>
>Mice are a real problem in growing ginseng. They use mole holes for runways 
>and eat the ginseng roots. The mulch makes an ideal home for them. Use 
>mouse baits and check ginseng patches frequently. Mouse traps placed in 
>blocks or other hiding places may help.
>
>Voles, also known as field mice or orchard mice, are small rodents that 
>cause serious damage to ginseng. Voles burrow into a ginseng bed and eat 
>the roots. There are no repellents available for controlling voles; 
>however, the use of rodenticide and baits is effective. Baits seem to be 
>the best method. An example of a bait is to place a poison in the holes of 
>a brick, cover the brick with a plastic bucket, and then cut holes in the 
>rim of the bucket for access on all sides. This way, the poison is kept dry 
>and away from larger animals. Growers report fish-flavored Rami Green to be 
>the vole bait of choice. Some growers use plastic tubing, rodent barriers, 
>and traps; others simply have cats or owls around. These methods will work 
>for mice, too. Study your environment and determine what tactic works best 
>for you.
>
>
>========================================
>As far as digging for ginseng on other sources........
>
>snip--------http://www.wvforestry.com/ginseng.cfm?menucall=ginseng
>Collection of Ginseng in West Virginia is regulated by State law. Ginseng 
>roots are to be dug only between August 15 and November 30 each year. 
>Ginseng diggers, often called "sangers," are required to sow the seeds from 
>harvested plants at the site of the digging, thereby perpetuating the 
>species in its native habitat. During the digging season landowners may dig 
>Ginseng on their own land or give written permission to others to dig on 
>their land. Digging without written permission on posted or enclosed land 
>is a criminal act and subject to fines and imprisonment. Ginseng buyers 
>must obtain a permit from the WV Division of Forestry. Possession of 
>uncertified Ginseng between April 1 and August 14 is illegal and 
>substantial penalties are imposed on violators.
>Ginseng has been harvested as a cash crop in West Virginia for at least 200 
>years. In 2002, more than 6,400 pounds of Ginseng, worth more than $2 
>million, were dug in West Virginia. Ginseng Harvest records from 1978 to 
>1999 for wild and cultivated plants are available by clicking Wild Ginseng 
>Harvest History and Cultivated Ginseng Harvest History.
>================================
>Ginseng Findings 2000 Fish and Wildlife Services
>http://international.fws.gov/animals/gingfind.html
>
>snip-----------
>
>10. The Service agrees with claims that economic factors (such as the Asian 
>economic crisis in the late 1990s, price of roots, and the current low 
>unemployment rate in the United States) may have influenced demand for and 
>harvest of American ginseng in the last few years. In fact, research 
>conducted at West Virginia University found a correlation between harvest 
>levels and unemployment (personal communication with Mr. Brent Bailey). 
>However, no correlation was found between price and harvest amounts. Biotic 
>and abiotic factors (such as deer browsing and drought), as well as habitat 
>destruction, also have a negative impact on wild ginseng populations.
>
>11. However, based on all of the information detailed above, we continue to 
>believe that recent declines in many States in the amount of wild American 
>ginseng harvested are greatly related to population declines associated 
>with overharvest, particularly of young individuals that have not reached 
>reproductive age. We are seriously concerned that this overharvest, in 
>addition to the other factors affecting the species, threatens wild 
>populations of this species and the livelihoods of those citizens who 
>depend on this plant as a source of income.
>
>15. In addition to monitoring, the Service is also funding research at West 
>Virginia University to examine, among other things, the status of wild 
>ginseng in West Virginia; the utility of some population indices currently 
>being used by OSA to assess the status of wild populations of ginseng; the 
>importance of timing of harvest season; and the possible effects of deer 
>browsing and dispersal of seeds by deer and turkey. Preliminary results 
>indicate that:
>
>    a. Current harvest seasons in many States are unrelated to plant
>    phenology and may be detrimental to the long-term survival of the
>    species. Specifically, many States allow harvest of plants before
>    seeds ripen, thus reducing the chances of seed germination, even if
>    these are planted as required by most States. *OSA encourages the
>    States to review their harvest seasons (Table 1) to address this
>    problem. States should also coordinate with neighboring States to
>    establish similar harvest seasons to discourage unscrupulous diggers
>    from harvesting roots before the start of the harvest season in
>    their State and selling the roots in neighboring States where the
>    harvest season already has started.*
>
>    b. Germination rates are affected by the depth at which seeds are
>    buried: low at 0 cm, highest at 2 cm, decreasing thereafter. *OSA
>    encourages States to share these findings with diggers and dealers
>    to increase germination rates of planted seeds.*
>
>    c. There is a negative correlation between densities of deer and
>    ginseng plants.
>
>
>========================================
>
>
>http://international.fws.gov/ginseng/2003-2004ginsengfinding.htm
>August 5, 2003
>
>To:
>Chief, Division of Management Authority
>
>From:
>Chief, Division of Scientific Authority
>
>Subject:
>Convention Permit Applications for Wild Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) 
>Harvested in 2003 and 2004
>
>
>This document constitutes our finding on the export of wild American 
>ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, for the 2003 and 2004 harvest seasons.
>
>Please, be advised that, based on our analysis of available information, we 
>find that the export of wild American ginseng roots of 5 years of age or 
>older (i.e., with five or more bud-scale scars on the rhizome) harvested 
>during the 2003-2004 seasons in the following States will not be 
>detrimental to the survival of the species: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, 
>Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, 
>North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West 
>Virginia, and Wisconsin.
>
>We will continue to monitor the status of American ginseng in the wild, 
>with the understanding that the above finding and associated restrictions 
>may be modified for exports of American ginseng harvested in 2004 if deemed 
>necessary based on any new information that we may receive. In 2005, we 
>will re-evaluate the status of this species, including the outcome of 
>various actions being taken at the State and Federal levels, as described 
>in this finding.
>
>BASIS FOR ADVICE
>
>To ensure that American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) remains viable 
>throughout its range in the United States and to determine whether the 
>export of American ginseng will not be detrimental to the survival of the 
>species, DSA annually reviews available information from various sources 
>(other Federal agencies, State regulatory agencies, industry and 
>associations, non-governmental organizations, and researchers) on the 
>status and biology of the species, and specifically for each State from 
>which American ginseng roots are exported.
>
>Biology, ecology, and range of the species
>
>1. American ginseng (hereafter referred to as “ginseng”) is a slow-growing, 
>long-lived (50 plus years) herbaceous perennial of the Araliaceae family 
>(Lewis and Zenger 1982). The species is endemic to Eastern North America, 
>occurring in southern Canada (Ontario and Quebec) west to South Dakota and 
>Oklahoma and south to Georgia (Small and Catling 1999; NatureServe 2001).
>
>2. Ginseng is a species of stable habitats, such as the understory of 
>mid-successional to late-successional deciduous forests (Charron and Gagnon 
>1991). Plants emerge after the leaf canopy has partially or fully developed 
>(Lewis and Zenger 1982).
>
>3. Although ginseng can grow on a wide variety of soil textures and 
>topographic conditions, it requires moist soils and sites of low 
>evapotranspiration loss (Anderson et al. 1993).
>
>4. Below ground, ginseng forms a thick taproot, a special underground stem 
>known as a vertical rhizome sits on top of the main root and sends up the 
>above-ground stem each year. The rhizome is characterized by large scars 
>that form as a result of the annual abscission or accidental loss of the 
>single subterminal aerial stem. These annual scars are well-marked on the 
>rhizome and can be counted to determine the age of the plant (Lewis and 
>Zenger 1982). Growth rate varies among individuals, so plants with the same 
>number of leaves and leaflets may be close but not identical in age 
>(Anderson 2002).
>
>5. Ginseng leaves are whorled, palmately compound, with three to five 
>leaflets (Radford et al. 1981). An individual whorled leaf with a petiole 
>is referred to as a “prong,” and is commonly used to indicate the 
>size-class or age of individual ginseng plant (Lewis and Zenger 1983; 
>Lockard and Swanson 1998).
>
>6. Typically, ginseng has been divided into four size-classes based on the 
>number of leaves or prongs. Generally, one-prong plants (with 3-5 leaflets) 
>are 2 years of age, two-prong plants (with 10 leaflets) ranged from 3 to 6 
>years of age, three-prong plants (with 15 leaflets) ranged from 7 to 9 
>years of age, and four-prong plants (with 20 leaflets) ranged from 10 to 11 
>years of age (Anderson et al. 1993). Four- and five-prong plants represent 
>the oldest individuals of a population (Lewis and Zenger 1983).
>
>7. Wild ginseng plants do not reproduce until they are at least 4 years of 
>age (Carpenter and Cottam1982; Anderson et al. 1993; Dunwiddie and Anderson 
>1999).
>
>8. Ginseng has perfect flowers (bisexual flowers): an individual flower has 
>both stamens (male) and carpels (female) (Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis 
>and Zenger 1982; Schlessman 1985). Although ginseng does have a high 
>natural rate of self-fertilization (Schlessman 1985), outcrossing 
>(cross-pollination) between plants has been reported (Carpenter and Cottam 
>1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983). However, ginseng is not apomictic: capable of 
>producing seed without any form of fertilization (Carpenter and Cottam 
>1982).
>
>9. Ginseng is not an obligate outcrosser (Carpenter and Cottam 1982). 
>Ginseng flowers have been observed to be pollinated with and without 
>pollinator assistance (Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; 
>Schlessman 1985). Small bees in the family Halictidae and flies in the 
>family Syrphidae appear to be the major pollinators of ginseng (Carpenter 
>and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985). However, these 
>pollinators probably do not transfer pollen between distant individuals 
>(Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
>
>10.Ginseng fruits turn red at maturity and typically are two-seeded in each 
>berry-like fruit (Lewis and Zenger 1983). Although very infrequent, ginseng 
>fruit can yield three and four seeds (Anderson et al. 1984; Schlessman 
>1985). A typical flowering 4-year-old wild ginseng plant may produce 30-40 
>fruits on each inflorescence (Proctor and Bailey 1987).
>
>11.The fecundity (number of offspring) of ginseng is low, and seed 
>production is positively correlated with age and size of the population 
>(Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985). Seed 
>mortality is high, and is the most precarious portion of ginseng’s life 
>cycle (Lewis and Zenger 1982). Ginseng does not form a long-term seed bank 
>(Anderson et al. 1984; Charron and Gagnon 1991).
>
>12.To germinate, seeds require an after-ripening process (warm-cold 
>sequence of temperature changes) that averages 18-22 months (Lewis and 
>Zenger 1982; Proctor and Bailey 1987). The embryo is inactive during the 
>first winter, matures during the next growing season, and then endures a 
>second winter before it is able to germinate (Hu et al. 1980). Asexual 
>(vegetative) reproduction of ginseng due to rhizome or root fragmentation 
>is very rare and unknown in most populations (Lewis 1988).
>
>13.Ginseng is physiologically adapted to low light levels, reaching light 
>saturation (the intensity at which an increase in light does not increase 
>photosynthesis) at levels as low as 10% of full sunlight, whereas maximum 
>growth occurs up to 30% of full sunlight (Proctor 1980). At moderate high 
>light levels, ginseng can experience leaf chlorosis, (yellowing caused by 
>loss of or reduced development of chlorophyll) (Gagnon 1999), early leaf 
>senescence, or depressed growth (Anderson 2002).
>
>14.Ginseng plants can senesce (a natural die-back of the plant) during the 
>summer, after the new terminal bud has formed, and can appear “dormant” at 
>the time of fall harvesting (Carpenter and Cottam 1982). More often, it is 
>the largest plants that are likely to senesce early in the summer and as a 
>result do not produce any seed in that year (Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
>
>15.True dormancy in ginseng (failure to produce a vegetative stem) is far 
>less common than early leaf senescence, and can result when there has been 
>physical damage to the plant (e.g., animal damage) (Carpenter and Cottam 
>1982).
>
>16. Figure 1 (page 28) shows the range of ginseng in North America and its 
>conservation status according to NatureServe, a non-profit organization 
>that compiles and assesses data on plants, animals, and ecological 
>communities collected by the 50 State Natural Heritage Programs, and Canada 
>(NatureServe: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. 2001. 
>Version 1.4. Arlington, Virginia, USA. URL: http://www.natureserve.org/. 
>Accessed June 2, 2003).
>
>Research and monitoring of American ginseng
>
>1. Field studies of ginseng have found that ginseng is highly self-fertile 
>(Schluter and Punja 2000), and pollination can occur between flowers on a 
>single flower head (umbel) or between flower heads. Furthermore, 
>self-pollinated flowers produce the same proportion of seeds as outcrossed 
>(cross-fertilized) flowers (Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Schlessman 1985). 
>Schlessman (1985) suggested that the high pollen-to-ovule ratio of ginseng 
>inflorescences promotes adequate pollination even though pollinator visits 
>are infrequent. The author speculated that female reproductive success of 
>ginseng is probably governed by the amount of photosynthate allocated to 
>reproduction, rather than by abundance or efficiency of pollinators 
>(Schlessman 1985).
>
>2. Schluter and Punja (2000) confirmed Schlessman and other researchers’ 
>observations that ginseng’s ability to produce flowers that mature into 
>fruit increases with the age and size of the plant, and is regulated by the 
>availability of site resources, such as nutrients, water, sunlight 
>(Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985).
>
>4. A 10-year (1986-1996) demographic study conducted by Dunwiddie and 
>Anderson (1999) on two wild populations of ginseng in Massachusetts found 
>that the number of individual plants that produced fruit varied 
>considerably among years, ranging from 0.5% to 33% (Dunwiddie and Anderson 
>1999).
>
>5. Field research conducted by Lewis and Zenger (1983) found that only 0.6% 
>of wild ginseng seeds germinated after 20 months. Although the researchers 
>found that the ginseng seeds that did germinate had a high probability 
>(97%) of developing to adulthood (Lewis and Zenger 1983). In contrast in 
>experimental field tests where seeds were sown by humans, germination rates 
>were 55-75%.
>
>6. Monitoring results of 10 wild ginseng populations in West Virginia found 
>that 90% of ginseng seeds remain within 2 meters of the parental plant (Van 
>der Voot cited in McGraw 2003).
>
>7. Researchers in Canada have determined that the minimum viable population 
>(MVP) size for ginseng in Canada is 172 plants, including reproductive and 
>non-reproductive individuals (Nantel et al. 1996). This number was based on 
>the large quantity of fruits (seeds) produced, no large plant dormancy or 
>senescence of individuals, and an average population growth rate of 1.04 
>(D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
>
>8. Based on a data set from 1998 to 2001, Dr. Gagnon calculated the MVP 
>size for ginseng in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) to be 
>510 individuals. The estimated size for the GSMNP is much larger than the 
>172 MVP size for Canada, because, in the GSMNP, populations have a low 
>average growth rate, plants produced fewer fruits (seeds), and some large 
>plants remain dormant or senesce (Gagnon 2003). Dr. Gagnon speculated that 
>a MVP of 510 in the GSMNP may also be related to droughts during the third 
>and fourth years of the study, and that that the remaining populations of 
>ginseng in the park are located on marginal sites because poachers have 
>extirpated ginseng from its preferred habitat (D. Gagnon, University of 
>Quebec, pers. comm.).
>
>9. A demographic study of six ginseng populations (501 plants) in the GSMNP 
>found that 45% of all plants had three prongs and only 8.6% had four 
>prongs. The population growth rates were close to 1.0 (i.e., a stable 
>population), which indicated that, for the populations to remain viable, no 
>harvesting could occur (J. Rock et al. 1999).
>
>10.According to Dr. Gagnon, in general, populations that are growing (even 
>slowly) will have a smaller MVP size than populations that are stable or 
>declining (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
>
>11.Wild-harvesting of ginseng removes the largest reproductive individuals 
>from populations (Charron and Gagnon 1991), which reduces population sizes 
>and the ability of populations to recover (Hackney and McGraw 2001). 
>Research by Hackney and McGraw (2001) shows that small populations of 
>ginseng may be particularly vulnerable to the Allee effect. The Allee 
>effect is when the fertility and survival of individuals of small 
>populations may be diminished once population size descends below a 
>critical threshold (Lande 1987; Caswell 1989; Veit and Lewis 1996; Groom 
>1998).
>
>12.Hackney and McGraw (2001) tested for reproductive limitations due to 
>small population size (a form of the Allee effect) by experimentally 
>planting 453 individuals of 4-year-old cultivated ginseng plants in small 
>groups. Plant size traits, reproductive traits, and pollinator visits were 
>recorded. According to the researchers, their findings demonstrate that the 
>reduced number of fruits per flower and the reduced number of fruits per 
>plant are consistent with the operation of an Allee effect. They concluded 
>that, for ginseng, knowledge of the presence as well as the mechanism 
>underlying this Allee effect may be especially useful for the management 
>and determination of minimum viable population size of the species in the 
>wild.
>
>13. Charron and Gagnon (1991) found that the maximum sustainable rate of 
>harvest of ginseng is the rate at which mean growth rate exceeds from the 
>equilibrium value of 1.00 (population stability or maintenance).
>
>14. Nantel (1996) and other researchers have calculated that the percentage 
>of sustainable harvest for many native plants, including ginseng, is 
>between 5% and 8% of a population, spread over each size-class of plants. 
>For example, a wild population of 172 plants consisting of individuals in 
>all size-classes (0=seedlings to 4=four leaved plants) would have 
>approximately 55 plants of size-classes 3 and 4. A harvest of 5% of the 
>larger-sized plants would yield 2.9 or 3 plants per year, therefore leaving 
>approximately 52 plants of the larger-size classes (Nantel et al. 1996).
>
>15. Research by Dr. McGraw, of the University of West Virginia, found that 
>the annual sustainable harvest rate for ginseng should be no more than 5% 
>in West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee (the top three leading exporters 
>of wild ginseng in the United States). A harvest rate of 5% would mean that 
>only 5% of plants within a size-class should be harvested. However, a 
>harvester will usually harvest all plants (100%) of the larger plants 
>(three-leaved plants and larger), and may occasionally leave the 
>smaller-sized plants (Nantel et al. 1996; Gagnon 1999).
>
>16. Researchers have concluded that low seed production, slow growth, and 
>poor seed dispersal have prevented historically harvested ginseng 
>populations from expanding to occupy other suitable sites, or from 
>recolonizing habitats where it use to grow (Dunwiddie and Anderson 1999; 
>Rosser and Haywood 2002). As a result, populations may become restricted 
>and isolated as suitable habitat is fragmented by logging (Rosser and 
>Haywood 2002).
>
>17. Examination by West Virginia University researchers of 915 herbarium 
>specimens of ginseng, deposited in 17 herbaria across the country and 
>collected randomly over a period of 186 years, revealed a significant 
>decrease in the height of wild plants, most of which were collected since 
>1900 (McGraw 2001). This reduction in plant size was region-specific, with 
>specimens from the northern portion of the species’ range in North America 
>remaining the same size, whereas specimens from the core of the species’ 
>range (the midwestern, Appalachian, and southern populations) declined in 
>size. Dr. McGraw speculated that the change in the physical size of the 
>specimens was a direct consequence of harvest pressure. Additionally, other 
>researchers have found that the number of ginseng specimens collected for 
>herbaria also declined during the 20th Century, whereas the number of 
>specimens of other closely related species remained the same or increased 
>(K. Flinn, The College of William and Mary, pers. comm.).
>
>18. Anderson (2002) studied 950 commercially harvested wild ginseng roots 
>from 11 States and found no significant relationship between age and root 
>weight for individual states. However, there was a tendency for harvested 
>roots from southern states to have younger mean ages than those harvested 
>from northern states. Furthermore, there was a linear increase in root 
>weight with an increase in latitude for the 11 States. Dr. Anderson’s work 
>supports similar findings by McGraw (2001) that suggest harvest pressure is 
>greater in the southern States than in the northern States.
>
>19. Several researchers have suggested that local ginseng populations are 
>highly adapted to local conditions, and that artificial seeding (with 
>non-local seed) may lead to local loss of fitness, which could lead to an 
>erosion of the gene pool (H. Grubbs and Dr. M. Case Ginseng Conference, 
>Louisville, Kentucky, 2000).
>
>20. Holly Grubbs and Dr. Case of the College of William and Mary found that 
>there is high genetic variability among wild ginseng populations, and low 
>genetic variability within populations (Ginseng Conference, Louisville, 
>Kentucky, 2000).
>
>21. Using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) genetic analysis, 
>researchers found that sampled wild populations of ginseng in North 
>Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, and several cultivated specimens 
>were genetically diverse and different from each other (Boehm et al. 1999). 
>Furthermore, the researchers found that specimens of ginseng from the GSMNP 
>appeared to have a unique genetic integrity, which may represent a distinct 
>center of genetic diversity, as displayed with the coordination of genetic 
>values calculated with RAPD bands. However, the researchers also found that 
>wild specimens of ginseng collected in Pennsylvania displayed low genetic 
>diversity and were similar to cultivated specimens of ginseng. They 
>concluded that, in areas with a history of ginseng harvest, wild ecotypes 
>may be mixed with cultivated varieties (Boehm et al. 1999).
>
>Status, Protection, Harvest, and Trade
>
>1. Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) was listed in Appendix II of CITES in 
>1975. In 1983, we required that all ginseng to be exported had to be 
>certified as either wild or cultivated [artificially propagated] (Carlson 
>1986). In 1999, to further protect wild populations, we determined that 
>only wild ginseng roots of 5 years of age or older may be exported.
>
>2. The primary cause of decline for ginseng is that of exploitation by 
>harvesters in response to consumer demand (NatureServe 2001). The species 
>is designated as “Endangered” in Canada; the export of wild-harvested 
>ginseng roots is prohibited by law (COSEWIC 2001). In the United States, 
>wild-collection of ginseng is not permitted or is discouraged in 
>Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, and Rhode Island due 
>to declines in populations. Under State laws, ginseng is listed as 
>“endangered” in Maine and as “threatened” in Michigan. Declines have been 
>documented on National Park (NP) lands, U.S. Forest Service (USFS) lands, 
>and throughout many other areas within the species’ range, including in 
>Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Minnesota, North Carolina, 
>Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
>
>3. Table 1 (pages 22-23) shows the conservation status of ginseng in the 
>United States according to NatureServe (2001). Based on the conservation 
>status ranking system developed by NatureServe, none of the States that 
>currently allow the harvest of wild ginseng received a rating of secure 
>(S5), which would indicate that wild populations of the species are stable 
>(typically more than 100 occurrences, and more than 10,000 individuals). 
>Table 1 also shows the estimated number of populations of ginseng, the 
>percentage of counties from which ginseng is exported, and the estimated 
>number of plants harvested in 2001 (Kauffman 2003).
>
>4. The National Park Service (NPS) prohibits the harvest of native plants 
>from national parks. However, poaching of ginseng continues to occur and 
>takes place not only in major national parks (such as Great Smoky Mountains 
>National Park, Tennessee-North Carolina; Mammoth Cave National Park, 
>Kentucky; and Shenandoah National Park, Virginia), but also in smaller ones 
>(such as Blue Ridge Parkway, North Carolina and Virginia; Little River 
>Canyon National Preserve, Alabama).
>
>5. Between 1991 and 2001, 11,654 pounds of illegally harvested ginseng 
>roots (an estimated 3,496,200 plants) were seized in the GSMNP, which 
>encompasses 800 square miles (512,000 acres) within the core of the 
>species’ range (J. Rock, GSMNP, pers. comm.). In 2002, at Mammoth Cave 
>National Park (MCNP), a poacher was apprehended with 19 pounds of green 
>ginseng roots (an estimated 5,700 plants) (M. DePoy, MCNP, pers. comm.). 
>(An average of 300 roots per pound at a one-to-one ratio of root to plant).
>
>6. To combat the illegal harvest of ginseng in national parks, the NPS has 
>implemented several preventive strategies, such as permanently marking 
>ginseng roots which cause the roots to be unacceptable for sale.
>
>7. Ginseng poaching is not restricted to Federal and State lands; it also 
>affects private land owners (Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis, Missouri, 
>February 19-21, 2003).
>
>8. Historical harvest records indicate that, from 1821 to 1899, an average 
>of 381,000 pounds of wild ginseng root were exported annually from the 
>United States (Anderson 1986). Exports for 1992-2001 have averaged 104,261 
>pounds (an estimated 31,278,300 plants) annually. Although the total weight 
>of exported ginseng has declined, it is believed to represent a greater 
>number of individual plants than in the 1800s because smaller plants 
>(roots) are being harvested (Haber 1990). This is due to a general decline 
>in the number of older plants available for harvest.
>
>9. In the late 1970s, ginseng roots of wild origin accounted for 
>approximately 30% of the roots exported from North America, primarily to 
>Asian markets. Today, only 3.5% of ginseng exports are wild-harvested 
>roots. To meet the international demand for ginseng, the difference is 
>derived from cultivated plants (Schippman 2001). Nevertheless, the demand 
>for wild ginseng roots remains high due to the preference by Asian 
>consumers for wild roots over cultivated ones.
>
>10. With the exception of Maryland, all of the States that currently have a 
>wild ginseng export program have USFS National Forest lands within their 
>State boundaries (Figure 2, page 29).
>
>11. Due to concerns of over-harvest and the decline of ginseng on USFS 
>lands in the Eastern Region (R-9), in 1999 the Region designated ginseng 
>(Panax quinquefolius) as a Regional Forester Sensitive Species on the 
>following National Forests (NF): Shawnee NF, Illinois; Hoosier NF, Indiana; 
>White Mountain NF, Maine and New Hampshire; Ottawa and Huron Manistee NF, 
>Michigan; Green Mountain NF, Vermont; and Chequamegon/Nicolet NF, Wisconsin 
>(Figure 2, page 29) (URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/america 
>ginseng.pdf. Accessed June 17, 2003). Ginseng cannot be harvested on these 
>NFs except as provided for in tribal agreements or research collection 
>permits (URL: http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/america 
>ginseng.pdf. Accessed June 17, 2003).
>
>12. The purpose of designating species as a USFS Regional Forester 
>Sensitive Species is to protect rare species and their habitats before 
>there is a need to list species as “threatened” or “endangered” under the 
>U.S. Endangered Species Act. Species designated as Sensitive Species are 
>vulnerable due to low populations and other risk factors. By designating 
>ginseng as a Sensitive Species, USFS policy mandates the completion of a 
>conservation assessment of the species. The conservation assessment will 
>provide a review of known information regarding the species’ distribution, 
>habitat, ecology, and population biology. Upon completion, the USFS will 
>develop a conservation strategy for ginseng on NFs in the Eastern Region. 
>Once a conservation strategy is developed, the USFS may choose to work with 
>cooperating agencies or organizations to draft a formal conservation 
>agreement that will identify how the multiple entities can work together to 
>conserve the species 
>(URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/ca-overview/index.htm. Accessed 
>June 17, 2003). The completion date for the conservation assessment is 
>scheduled for 2004 (G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.).
>
>13. Only two NFs within the Eastern Region continue to issue harvest 
>permits for ginseng roots: Monongahela NF (West Virginia) and Wayne NF 
>(Ohio). In 2002, the Monongahela NF issued 21 permits (E. Ash, USFS, pers. 
>comm.). The Wayne NF issued 180 permits in 2002, compared to113 permits 
>issued in 2001 (E. Larson, USFS, pers. comm.).
>
>14.Field studies conducted on the Monongahela NF suggest that ginseng has 
>been reduced in some locations to populations of one to a few dozen 
>individuals (Van der Voort 1998).
>
>15. Allegheny NF (Pennsylvania) and Mark Twain NF (Missouri) in the Eastern 
>Region do not have a formal policy on the issuance of ginseng harvest 
>permits (USFS personnel, pers. comm.). However, the issuance of such 
>permits is discouraged on these two NFs. The Chippewa NF and Superior NF 
>(Minnesota), Finger Lakes NF (New York), and Hiawatha NF (Wisconsin) are 
>within the range of ginseng; however, the species is not currently known to 
>be present within the boundaries of these National Forests 
>(URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/rfss_plants_083002.pdf. 
>Accessed June 17, 2003).
>
>16. The majority of the USFS Southern Region (R-8) NFs (except NFs in 
>Texas, Florida, and Puerto Rico) are within the range of ginseng (Figure 2, 
>page 29). Results from field monitoring of ginseng in the Southern Region 
>NFs indicated viability concerns with the continued harvest of ginseng 
>(USFS 2000). According to FS personnel, ginseng on NF lands in the Southern 
>Region has been completely extirpated from one-third of its historic sites, 
>and the remaining ginseng patches are smaller and composed of younger 
>individuals. USFS field data indicated that 95% of the ginseng populations 
>on the NFs in the Southern Region had significant persistence risks (USFS 
>2000a) and are heading toward conditions in which ginseng will no longer be 
>economically or ecologically viable (Sutter and Kauffman 2000).
>
>17. In 2000, the Southern Region considered a temporary moratorium on the 
>issuance of harvest permits for ginseng due to concerns that collection 
>rates may be exceeding sustainable levels. However, the moratorium was not 
>imposed.
>
>18. However, within the USFS Southern Region, several individual NFs have 
>implemented harvest restrictions. In 2000, the Ozark-St. Francis and the 
>Ouachita NFs in Arkansas established a 5-year moratorium on the harvest of 
>ginseng to prevent further decline in ginseng abundance and until 
>monitoring data indicate that wild populations can sustain harvesting 
>(URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/oonf/ozark/new/ginseng-letter.html. Accessed June 
>17, 2003).
>
>19.Table 2 (page 24) shows the number of permits issued on NFs in the 
>Southern Region from 1999 to 2002 (F. Huber, C. Wentworth, D. Taylor, M. 
>Pistrang, G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.). Harvest permits are issued for 
>either one or two pounds each, and are counted as wet (green) or dry root 
>weight, depending on the particular NF. The high number of permits (787) 
>issued in 2001 on the Nantahala and Pisgah NFs in North Carolina may have 
>been a result of double-counting the number of permits issued for that 
>year. The actual number is most likely similar to the number of permits 
>(600) issued in 2000 (G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.).
>
>20. To curtail the illegal poaching of ginseng in wilderness areas and 
>other protected areas, the USFS in North Carolina has implemented a marking 
>program similar to that used by the NPS (G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.).
>
>21. In 1979, eight permanent plots (50 x 50 meters) were established on NF 
>lands in the Southern Region to monitor ginseng. The plots were surveyed at 
>various times throughout 1979-1983. The eight plots were re-visited in 1999 
>and 2000; however, no individuals were located in three of the plots. 
>Population data from the five plots showed a statistically significant 
>declined in the mean population size, from 29.8 plants/plot in 1979 to 5.7 
>plants/plot in 1999. Results from field surveys in 2000, indicated that 29% 
>of the populations were extirpated, and that within 10 years 43% of the 
>populations would not be viable.
>
>22. Our analysis of the harvest reports submitted by the States for the 
>2000 and 2001 harvest seasons identified a strong relationship between 
>State counties and NFs lands in the Southern Region and the harvest amounts 
>reported. Most of the ginseng harvested in several States is reported from 
>counties that have large percentages of USFS lands. For example, based on 
>data from the 2000 and 2001 harvest reports from North Carolina, we found 
>that 18 counties with USFS lands accounted for 92% and 93%, respectively, 
>of the total amount of wild ginseng harvested in the State in these years. 
>In Virginia, the percentages of wild ginseng originating from 30 counties 
>with USFS lands are 64% and 75% for the 2000 and 2001 harvest seasons, 
>respectively; and in Georgia, the percentages are 65% and 89% for the 2000 
>and 2001 harvest seasons, respectively. Figure 3 (page 30) shows ginseng 
>amounts harvested by State counties in 1999 and 2000 (data provided by G. 
>Kauffman, USFS).
>
>23.As reported in our last four findings (1999-2002) for the export of 
>ginseng, the quantity of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng has 
>increased in the last decade. However, most States do not report 
>wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng separately from “wild,” thereby 
>potentially affecting the harvest trend data for those States. The effects 
>of reporting these quantities together may indicate erroneously that wild 
>populations within a particular State have remained stable or have 
>increased, allowing a greater harvest.
>
>24. It is possible that the amount of truly wild ginseng being harvested 
>has decreased, potentially due to a host of factors (decrease in abundance, 
>increase in herbivory, habitat destruction), whereas the amount of 
>wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng have increased, thus compensating 
>for and masking a decline in truly wild ginseng.
>
>25.We are also concerned that small-size ginseng roots (less than 5 years 
>old) are being harvested from the wild to be replanted in other areas, or 
>sold domestically as “green” roots. The removal of these young plants from 
>wild populations reduces the number of seeds produced and, therefore, 
>future recruitment of individuals into those wild populations.
>
>New Information and Research
>
>1. The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), the ginseng export States, 
>industry, academic researchers, and others are working together to improve 
>our understanding and knowledge of wild ginseng, and to better assess the 
>impact of harvest on wild ginseng populations. To this end, the Service 
>held a workshop with scientific researchers, the States, Animal and Plant 
>Health Inspection Service (APHIS), and the USFS during February 19-21, 
>2003, in St. Louis, Missouri. Current and ongoing research presented at the 
>workshop is included in this finding.
>
>2. In 2003, we initiated a research study, to be conducted by the U.S. 
>Geological Survey/Biological Resources Division (USGS/BRD) and with 
>assistance from the USFS, to develop a predictive habitat modeling database 
>for ginseng within the core range of ginseng in the southern Appalachians. 
>Completion of this project is expected in the fall of 2004. The second 
>phase of the project will be to verify and inventory identified habitat 
>locations for ginseng.
>
>3. In 2001, Dr. McGraw (2003) established 27 long-term monitoring plots for 
>ginseng in Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia, with one additional site 
>in Indiana. Results from two field seasons (2001 and 2002) show that many 
>of the populations are small, with only a few individuals, and that older 
>three- and four-pronged plants were absent from most of the 27 populations 
>(Table 3, page 24). Nine populations in Kentucky (the State with the 
>largest amount of ginseng harvested) were found to be expanding slightly, 
>whereas the 12 populations in West Virginia (the State with the second 
>largest annual harvest) were declining slightly. Although these rates are 
>only based on two season’s worth of data, Dr. McGraw speculated that the 
>differences between the populations in the two States may be due to higher 
>rates of seed production for ginseng in Kentucky (although lower 
>germination rates), compared to populations in West Virginia. The West 
>Virginia populations may have been also affected by deer browse (McGraw 
>2003).
>
>4. Jones et al. (2003) analyzed 25 years of field data, collected from 115 
>one-acre ginseng sites throughout the State of Kentucky, to determine if 
>the ginseng populations had increased, remained stable, or decreased at 
>these sites. Using correlation analysis, Dr. Jones determined that 39 sites 
>(34%) had a high positive correlation coefficient, indicating an increase 
>of populations over time, whereas 16 sites (14%) showed populations were 
>declining over time. Analysis of the remaining 60 sites indicated that 
>populations have remained relatively stable (slightly positive or slightly 
>negative) over time.
>
>5. The Missouri Department of Natural Resources monitored an average of 370 
>ginseng plants for 6 years (Drees 2003). A significant finding from the 
>field study was that, when the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) 
>population peaked, at least 41% of all ginseng reproduction was aborted due 
>to deer herbivory (Drees 2003). Repeated grazing of ginseng by deer 
>resulted in a substantial decline in the percentage of mature plants that 
>produce inflorescences. However, when the deer population was reduced, the 
>reproductive success of ginseng improved. The author concluded that 
>repeated deer browse can stress ginseng populations and result in a 
>substantial decline in the percentage of mature plants that produce fruit 
>(Drees 2003).
>
>6. Based on field monitoring data, the maturity of ginseng fruit at the 
>time of root harvest can significantly affect seed viability and 
>germination (McGraw 2003). Ginseng monitoring in West Virginia revealed 
>that 75% of ginseng fruits were still green on August 15, the start of the 
>harvest season in that State. The field data also showed that the harvest 
>of ginseng roots prior to full fruit ripening (red fruit) can drive a 
>population’s growth rate below an equilibrium value of 1.00 (declining 
>population) (McGraw 2003).
>
>7. Furthermore, the depth at which ginseng seeds are planted directly 
>affects the germination of seed. Based on field studies the lowest seed 
>germination was recorded at 0 cm (on the soil surface) and the largest 
>amount of germination was at a depth of 2.5 cm (1 inch), with rates 
>decreasing thereafter (McGraw 2003a).
>
>8. In 2004, the results of a demographic study of six ginseng populations 
>(510 plants total) in the GSMNP will be published in a scientific journal 
>(D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.). The study consisted of 
>monitoring two populations for 4 years (1998-2001) and four populations for 
>3 years (1999-2001). According Dr. Gagnon, a significant finding of the 
>study was that large plant dormancy in ginseng was confirmed for the first 
>time. Within the six populations, an average of 8% of the plants were 
>dormant in any year. Most plants emerged after 1 year (with decrease in 
>size); however, 12% remained dormant for 2 years. Overall, seed production 
>was very low, declining from 1998 to 2000, and averaged 10 seeds per 
>four-pronged plant. Population growth rates calculated from matrices 
>average 0.997 (declining populations). Stochastic projections indicated 
>that these populations are barely maintaining themselves and can not 
>tolerate any harvesting. According to Dr. Gagnon, large plant dormancy, low 
>seed production, and low population growth rates appear to be related to 
>droughts during the third and fourth years of the study (D. Gagnon, 
>University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
>
>9. The genetic diversity of 21 ginseng populations (1,317 plants) 
>consisting of 8 protected sites and 13 unprotected sites in four states 
>(Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, and West Virginia) was analyzed 
>(Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003). The genetic diversity of 21 ginseng 
>populations (1,317 plants) consisting of 8 protected sites and 13 
>unprotected sites in four states (Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, and 
>West Virginia) was analyzed (Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003). The 
>researchers found significantly greater genetic diversity (higher 
>heterozygosity), greater portion of older plants, and larger stage-class of 
>individuals within protected populations than within populations in which 
>harvesting had occurred. Genetic structure was significantly greater among 
>unprotected populations (GST= 0.491) than among protected populations (GST= 
>0.167). According to the researchers, the differences in the level and 
>distribution of genetic diversity in these populations indicate that 
>harvesting reduces genetic diversity and may have significant evolutionary 
>implications for this species (Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003).
>
>Alternative ginseng growing methods
>
>Although this finding primarily covers truly wild ginseng, it also includes 
>ginseng derived from other growing methods used to produce harvestable 
>roots for export. Unfortunately, consistent terminology for different 
>growing methods used are not universally applied, and not all States track 
>these methods or separately report ginseng harvested from such methods 
>(e.g., wild-simulated and woods-grown are often included in State harvest 
>data sheets as wild). We are therefore unable to categorically determine 
>that any of these alternative methods would qualify as artificial 
>propagation according to the CITES definition. Without clarification from 
>individual States, we currently consider ginseng from these alternative 
>growing methods to be wild when they are from the States covered by this 
>finding, although we could take a different approach in the future if we 
>can resolve the inconsistencies involved in the application of these terms.
>
>The two most popular growing methods used for ginseng are “wild-simulated” 
>and “woods-grown.” We have reviewed available information on these methods 
>from various sources, including State Cooperative Extension programs, 
>universities, non-profit organizations, and public literature. Although we 
>recognized that there may be variation in the application of these methods, 
>the following information is a brief summary of these two alternative 
>growing methods.
>
>Wild-simulated ginseng
>
>1. Much of the ginseng harvested as wild-simulated comes from natural woods 
>in the Appalachian-Allegheny Mountains in parts of Kentucky, New York, 
>Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and West Virginia, and a lesser amount from the 
>Ozark Plateau of Arkansas and Missouri (URL: 
>http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/ginsgold.html Accessed January 22, 2003).
>
>2. Wild-simulated ginseng is grown in a natural forest environment with 
>70%-80% shade, and with minimal site preparation and maintenance (URL: 
>http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html Accessed January 
>22, 2003). Although non-stratified ginseng seed can be planted, most 
>references recommend planting stratified seed in the fall, after trees drop 
>their leaves (URL: http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html 
>Accessed January 22, 2003). Typically, the ground layer of mulch is pulled 
>back by hand or raked back; the seed is then broadcasted, and covered with 
>soil and mulch (Beyfuss 1999). Small ginseng transplant roots have also 
>been reported to be planted under wild-simulated production method.
>
>3. The ginseng plants are usually left to grow naturally, with occasional 
>vegetation control as necessary (Beyfuss 1999). Pesticides and fertilizers 
>are applied at the owner’s discretion (Beyfuss 1999).
>
>4. Wild-simulated ginseng grown from seed is typically harvested at 6-15 
>years of age (average 9-12 years) (URL: 
>http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/;
>http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf Accessed June 
>23, 2003). In general, harvested roots closely approximate the appearance 
>of truly wild ginseng roots, such as in color, texture, and shape of root 
>(URL:http://www.unl.edu/nac/afnotes/ff-4/index.html ; 
>http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf Accessed 
>January 22, 2003).
>
>Woods-grown ginseng
>
>1. Woods-grown or “woods-cultivated” ginseng often refers to ginseng grown 
>under a forest canopy with a range in the amount of human intervention. 
>Typically, large continuous forested areas that provide 70%-80% natural 
>shade are selected for woods-grown ginseng (Scott et al. 1995; Beyfuss 
>1999; URL: 
>http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/ ; 
>http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf ; 
>http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html 
>Accessed January 22, 2003).
>
>2. Much of the literature available on cultivation of woods-grown ginseng 
>recommend using intensive management techniques, as described below (Scott 
>et al. 1995; Beyfuss 1999; URL: 
>http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/ ; 
>http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html 
>Accessed January 22, 2003).
>
>3. Site preparation for woods-grown ginseng begins with clearing the 
>understory vegetation and undesirable trees, shrubs, and large rocks (Scott 
>et al. 1995; Beyfuss 1999; URL: 
>http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html ; 
>http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf ; 
>http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/factsheets/ginseng.pdf Accessed January 22, 
>2003). The soil is tilled usually 4-8 inches either by a rototiller or by 
>hand (Beyfuss 1999; http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/factsheets/ginseng.pdf 
>Accessed January 22, 2003). Depending on the location, soil amendments such 
>as limestone, gypsum, and chemical or organic fertilizers may be added to 
>the soil as necessary (Davis 1997; Beyfuss 1999; Das et al. 2001; 
>URL:http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html Accessed 
>January 22, 2003).
>
>4. Although non-stratified ginseng seed can be planted, most references 
>recommend planting stratified seed in the late summer or fall. A typical 
>application rate is 40-50 pounds per acre (Scott et al. 1995; Beyfuss 
>1999). There are approximately 7,000 to 8,000 ginseng seeds per pound 
>(Beyfuss 1999; URL: 
>http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html ; 
>Accessed June 23, 2003). To ensure a more uniform stand of plants and to 
>reduce the time from planting to harvest of roots, some references 
>recommend planting cultivated seedlings or cultivated transplant roots 
>(rootlets) (Davis 1997; Beyfuss 1999; Das et al. 2001).
>
>5. Typically, ginseng seed is planted in beds, which are routinely manually 
>cleaned of competing vegetation (URL: 
>http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html Accessed January 
>22, 2003). Pesticides are applied for insect, disease, and rodent control, 
>as necessary (Beyfuss 1999).
>
>6. Typically, woods-grown ginseng from seed requires 6-8 years to obtain a 
>size suitable for harvesting (Scott et al. 1995; Davis 1997; Beyfuss 1999; 
>URL:http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf Accessed 
>June 23, 2003). A general “rule of thumb” is that from 100 to 300 dried 
>ginseng roots yield one dried pound of roots (Beyfuss 1999).
>
>New Information on State Regulation of Harvest
>
>1. As of April 1, 2003, the State of North Carolina will require 
>wild-collected ginseng plants to be at least 5 years old and have three 
>prongs (leaves) or, in the absence of leaves, have at least four 
>discernible bud scars plus a bud on the rhizome. The new State regulation 
>requires harvesters to plant the seeds of harvested plants within 100 feet 
>of where ginseng is located in the wild (Rules on Ginseng Collection and 
>Trade in North Carolina. NC Administration Code Title 2 48F. As submitted 
>to DMA in 2003).
>
>2. The Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR) will implement the 
>following changes in their State regulations for the 2003 ginseng harvest 
>season: the harvest season will start September 1 (instead of August 15) 
>and no harvest will be allowed on State lands (S. Zook, ODNR, pers. comm.).
>
>3. The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources 
>(PDCNR) is in the process of amending their current ginseng harvest season 
>start date of August 1 to September 1. According to PDCNR, the new harvest 
>start date should be in effect for the 2004 harvest season (C. Rohrbach, 
>PDCNR, pers. comm.).
>
>Fish and Wildlife Service outreach efforts in 2003
>
>1. We and the Division of Management Authority held a workshop with State 
>ginseng program representatives, and other Federal agencies (USFS and 
>APHIS), February 19-21, 2003, in St. Louis, Missouri. Over the course of 3 
>days, new and ongoing ginseng research was presented by State, Federal, and 
>university researchers; the status, management, and conservation of the 
>species was discussed; and general recommendations were developed by the 
>group. Table 4 (page 25) lists the management issues and general 
>recommendations, and Table 5 (page 26) contains the trade and export issues 
>and general recommendations from the workshop.
>
>2. We also held a public meeting on May 21, 2003, in Lexington, Kentucky. 
>The purpose of the public meeting was to discuss U.S. obligations under 
>CITES related to the export of ginseng, and to obtain new information on 
>the biological and trade status of the species. To notify the public of the 
>meeting we published a Federal Register notice (Vol. 68, No. 78) on April 
>23, 2003. All State programs were notified in advance of the meeting, and 
>were encouraged to notify representatives of the ginseng industry in their 
>States.
>
>3. Attendees included growers, buyers and dealers, and exporters of ginseng 
>from 12 States. In addition, representatives from State and other Federal 
>agencies (USFS, and NPS) also participated. Among the ginseng growers and 
>trade representatives that attended the meeting, a general consensus was 
>voiced that the current age requirement (roots must be 5 years of age or 
>older) for the export of ginseng may not be sufficient to ensure the 
>long-term survival of the species. There was also acknowledgement amongst 
>the group that many State harvest seasons start too early, before ginseng 
>fruit is mature, and should be changed to when the fruit is mature (red). 
>Additionally, there was a general recommendation that ginseng harvesters 
>need to be better informed of when and how much to harvest, the correct 
>planting depth for ginseng seeds, and the potential negative impacts from 
>planting cultivated ginseng seeds in the wild, such as genetic erosion and 
>introduction of diseases. Several participants recommended that the ginseng 
>industry should play a greater role in the conservation and sustainable 
>harvest of ginseng.
>
>4. DSA met with USFS national resource program directors to discuss ginseng 
>management, harvest, and conservation issues on National Forest lands.
>
>Conclusions
>
>1. There is a substantial amount of scientific literature on the concept of 
>minimum viable population size of plant species needed to buffer the 
>effects of various types of stochastic risk (demographic, genetic, 
>environmental, habitat loss, etc.). Several researchers have suggested a 
>minimum viable population size range for ginseng to be 172 individuals in 
>the most northern portion of the species’ range (Canada) and up to 500 
>individuals in the southern portion of its range (GSMNP) (Nantel et al. 
>1996; D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
>
>2. Research has shown that harvesting of ginseng reduces population size 
>and, as with most species, small population size reduces genetic diversity, 
>which over time reduces the species’ ability to adapt to changing or 
>variable environments (Hackney and McGraw 2000; Anderson 2002; 
>Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003). Ginseng’s life history traits increase 
>ginseng’s vulnerability to stochastic risk: small populations, relative 
>long pre-reproductive period (reproductive plants are at least 4 years), 
>low fecundity and high seed mortality, and short-distance seed dispersal 
>(seed stays within 2-3 meters of parent plant) (Carpenter and Cottam 1982; 
>Lewis and Zenger 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Anderson et al. 1984; 
>Schlessman 1985; Charron and Gagnon 1991; Anderson et al. 1993; Van der 
>Voot 1998; Dunwiddie and Anderson 1999; Anderson 2002).
>
>3. Regardless of the historical abundance of ginseng, populations have 
>dramatically declined in the last century, and in some locations 
>populations have been reduced to a few dozen individuals (Van der Voot 
>1998). Field surveys of ginseng throughout portions of its range (Arkansas, 
>Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
>Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia) have found that population sizes that 
>would indicate a minimum viable population size of 172-500 individuals are 
>rarely encountered (Gagnon 1999; Drees 2003; Jones et al. 2003; Kauffman 
>2003; McGraw 2003).
>
>4. In Canada, the species is listed as “endangered”; in Maine, it is listed 
>as “endangered,” and it is listed as “threatened” in Michigan. Due to 
>scarcity of the species, several other States within its range prohibit or 
>discourage the wild-collection of ginseng (Connecticut, Delaware, 
>Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Rhode Island). National Forests in the 
>States of Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Michigan, New Hampshire, Vermont, and 
>Wisconsin have prohibited the issuance of harvest permits and have included 
>the species on the USFS Regional Foresters Sensitive Species list. Several 
>of the National Forests in the Southern Region have also restricted or 
>reduced the number of harvest permits issued.
>
>5. We are concerned that the amount of ginseng harvested may exceed the 
>amount authorized under USFS collection permits. The USFS collection 
>permits are limited to 1-2 pounds per permit and follow State harvest rules 
>and regulations (harvest season, age of plants, and planting of seeds). 
>However, once harvest permits are issued by a NF, there is little oversight 
>or enforcement of these harvest restrictions. Furthermore, many State 
>harvest seasons start before ginseng fruit is mature, thereby reducing the 
>number of new recruits. Discussions with USFS botanists support our 
>suspicion that the amount of wild ginseng harvested from NF lands most 
>likely exceeds the 1-2 pounds allowed by the USFS. Additionally, there are 
>concerns that ginseng poaching is occurring on USFS lands during and 
>outside of State harvest seasons, and that State harvest season start 
>before ginseng fruit is mature.
>
>6. Harvest is prohibited on NPS lands; however, ginseng continues to be 
>illegally poached from NPS (e.g., MCNP, GSMNP).
>
>7.With the exception of six States (Alabama, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, 
>Pennsylvania, Virginia), all of the other States with a wild ginseng export 
>program do not allow harvest on State lands.
>
>8. Most States continue to report that they do not have the resources 
>(monetary, personnel, etc.) to survey State lands to assess the status of 
>the species (e.g., abundance, distribution) within their respective States.
>
>9. We are concerned that the Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee, 
>Virginia, and West Virginia harvest seasons start in August before ginseng 
>fruit is fully mature (red), which decreases future offspring and 
>recruitment, even if seeds from harvested plants are planted as required by 
>these States (except Virginia) (Table 6, page 27). As previously stated in 
>this finding, this will affect the long-term survival of the species.
>
>10.We are concerned that ginseng harvesters may not be planting seed at the 
>recommended depth of 1 inch in the soil.
>
>11. Recent genetic research on ginseng, as well as research discussed in 
>this finding, has identified several factors, such as planting of non-local 
>or commercial seed into natural woodlands and the effects of over-harvest 
>of ginseng populations, which indicate that the species’ long-term genetic 
>diversity and survival may be affected by such actions.
>
>12. In 1999, under a study funded by DSA, Dr. Gagnon analyzed the long-term 
>sustainability of ginseng harvested from the wild and reported that the 
>wild-collection of ginseng is generally thought to be biologically 
>unsustainable and offers no incentive for species or habitat conservation 
>(Gagnon 1999).
>
>13. In a recent IUCN assessment of the conservation and sustainability of 
>ginseng, the paper concluded that the general consensus points to a 
>reduction and continuing decline of ginseng populations, and the harvest of 
>smaller wild roots than in previous years (Rosser and Haywood 2002). The 
>study concluded that the likelihood that ginseng exports are sustainable 
>may not be high and the system may require more oversight (Rosser and 
>Haywood 2002).
>
>14.Although the Service does not regulate harvest of ginseng, only the 
>export, we continue to work with the States and other Federal agencies 
>(USFS, NPS) that are responsible for managing the species and its habitat 
>on their lands, and to ensure the long-term viability of the species.
>
>15.Currently, and throughout the past several years, we have:
>
>Initiated in 2003 with the USGS/BRD, the development of a habitat modeling 
>database. The database will be used to estimate the potential distribution 
>of ginseng based on habitat availability. Phase two of the project will be 
>to verify and inventory probable ginseng locations.
>Sponsored two ginseng workshops (Missouri, 2003, and Kentucky, 2000) and 
>one public meeting (Kentucky, 2003).
>
>Established a ginseng listserve for State ginseng coordinators and Federal 
>agencies to share ginseng information and research.
>Discussed with USFS and NPS personnel our concerns about the status of 
>ginseng on National Forest and National Park Service lands.
>Funded field inventories and monitor studies, and status assessment of 
>ginseng. We have, and continue to share the results of these studies with 
>Federal and State agencies, and the public.
>In 1999, we implemented a minimum-age requirement (5 years or older) for 
>the export of wild ginseng roots.
>
>16. Our non-detriment finding is based on the best available biological 
>information on the status of the species. We have assessed the status of 
>ginseng by direct means, such as ongoing research studies, field 
>inventories, population assessments, and scientific literature, and through 
>indirect means, such as monitoring State harvest levels, reports by other 
>Federal agencies of ginseng poaching on their lands, and State and Federal 
>conservation and protection efforts.
>
>17. However, we continue to believe that an increasing amount of ginseng 
>exported as “wild” may actually be wild-simulated or woods-grown. Although 
>ginseng harvested from these growing methods is not likely to be 
>detrimental to truly wild ginseng, these amounts may inflate the harvest 
>data for truly wild ginseng. This is compounded by the fact that these 
>roots are often indistinguishable through visual inspection from truly wild 
>ginseng roots.
>
>18. Furthermore, many of the exporting States have Cooperative Extension 
>programs that provide public educational information on growing 
>wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng (Arkansas, Indiana, Kentucky, 
>Minnesota, Missouri, North Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and 
>West Virginia). We are concerned that the State regulatory agencies 
>responsible for overseeing the ginseng program in their respective State 
>may not be communicating with their State Cooperative Extension office 
>about the use and extent of alternative growing methods used for ginseng in 
>their State.
>
>19. We have previously found that the export of wild ginseng from all of 
>the States covered by this finding to be not detrimental to the survival of 
>the species based on the regulation of wild ginseng harvest by those 
>States.
>
>20. Although we remain concerned about the impact of international trade on 
>this species, we note that some improvements have occurred in the 
>regulation of ginseng, and we have obtained information to show that, 
>although harvest has adversely affected some ginseng populations, that is 
>not necessarily the case. There is greater attention being directed toward 
>the development of sustainable-harvest strategies for the species. State 
>and Federal agencies are improving coordination on research, management, 
>and regulation of harvest and enforcement, and increasing effort has been 
>and will be directed toward outreach and education of the public on 
>sustainable harvest methods and other activities to assist in the 
>conservation of the species. Therefore, we have concluded that the exports 
>of wild ginseng harvested in 2003 and 2004 will not be detrimental to the 
>survival of the species, provided the following CONDITION is met:
>
>Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) roots harvested in 2003 and 2004 and 
>certified by the States as wild, may be exported provided that the roots 
>are 5 years of age or older. (Age of ginseng roots at the time of harvest 
>can be determined by counting the number of bud-scale scars on the rhizome. 
>A single scar is produced after abscission of the plants’ aerial stem each 
>year.)
>
>Future Actions
>
>In preparation for making our non-detriment finding on exports of ginseng 
>in 2005, we will be assessing whether further progress has been made by 
>Federal and State agencies involved in ginseng monitoring, conservation, 
>and harvest regulation. We will seek up-to-date information on the status 
>of the species, including any the results of any field surveys and 
>additional protections afforded to it, and will discuss and recommend, as 
>appropriate, specific additional measures that may contribute to the 
>conservation of the species and sustainable harvest of ginseng for export.
>
>We will also evaluate the following information for our finding in 2005:
>
>1. Two reports: the long-term monitoring results of ginseng in the GSMNP 
>and the USFS Conservation Assessment of ginseng. Upon completion of the 
>USFS Conservation Assessment of ginseng, we will consult with the USFS to 
>determine what effect their finding may have on the export of ginseng.
>
>2. NatureServe will conduct a general re-assessment of the global 
>(range-wide) status of ginseng in 2003-2004 (L. Morse, NatureServe, pers. 
>comm.).
>
>3. We will work with Federal, State, and private-sector partners to 
>investigate other means for expanding efforts to monitor the status of 
>ginseng in the wild and ensure that harvest levels are sustainable for both 
>the short and long term.
>
>4. To prevent the harvest of pre-reproductive ginseng plants and to ensure 
>the long-term survival of ginseng in the wild, we will recommend that 
>Illinois, the only State without a minimum-age or -size requirement for 
>harvest, implement one that is consistent with the minimum-age requirement 
>for export. We will also recommend that the States of Illinois and Virginia 
>require harvesters to plant the seeds of harvested ginseng plants.
>
>5. We will consult with Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee, Virginia, 
>and West Virginia to encourage these States to revise their ginseng harvest 
>season start dates to coincide with when ginseng fruits are actually known 
>to be mature (red) in these States.
>
>6. We will examine the possibility of holding additional public meetings 
>and educational outreach workshops with State agencies. We will target 
>outreach efforts to harvesters and dealers to promote good harvest 
>practices.
>
>7. We will also explore mechanisms to increase communication, cooperation, 
>and coordination with States at a bioregional level.
>
>8. To improve our analysis, we will continue to encourage all States to 
>report values for dry roots per pound in their annual harvest reports, so 
>that we can continue to evaluate these data as an indicator of the impact 
>of harvest on wild ginseng populations.
>
>9. We will continue to discuss with the States the use of non-local or 
>“commercial” seed for replanting of ginseng. Although we support, in 
>principle, the concept of species’ restoration as a conservation measure, 
>we do not support the planting of “commercial” seed in native woodlands. We 
>are greatly concerned about the origin of ginseng seed for restoration 
>purposes and the impact of non-local ginseng seed on local gene pools of 
>wild populations of ginseng. Moreover, we are especially concerned where 
>the species is less common, particularly in those States where it is listed 
>as endangered or threatened (i.e., Maine and Michigan), where random 
>planting of non-local seed may have an even greater adverse effect on 
>ginseng populations.
>
>10. We will consider and discuss with the States and Federal land 
>management agencies what other effective conservation measures can be 
>implemented to ensure the long-term survival of ginseng.
>
>Table 1. NatureServe status rank, State listing, estimated number of 
>populations of ginseng, percent of counties with ginseng export, estimated 
>plants harvested in 2001.
>
>State
>Status rank1
>State listing
>Estimated populations based on status rank or tracked data
>Percent of counties with ginseng2
>Estimated plants harvested in 20013
>
>Alabama
>S4
>none
>101-1000
>37%
>164,000
>
>Arkansas
>S4
>none
>101-1000
>44%
>188,000
>
>Connecticut
>S3
>Species of Special concern
>21-200
>100%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>Delaware
>S2
>Species of Conservation
>6-20
>33%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>District of Columbia
>SH
>historical
>historical
>100%
>na
>
>Georgia
>S3
>none
>21-100
>61%
>158,000
>
>Illinois
>S3?
>none
>21-75
>100%
>832,000
>
>Indiana
>S3
>none
>21-100
>99%
>2,361,000
>
>Iowa
>S3
>none
>21-100
>85%
>95,000
>
>Kansas
>SR
>none
>not available
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>Kentucky
>S4
>none
>101-1000
>100%
>5,120,000
>
>Louisiana
>S1
>Rare
>1-6
>2%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>Maine
>S2
>Endangered
>29
>56%
>no wild harvest allowed
>
>Maryland
>S3
>Watch List
>21-100
>63%
>18,500
>
>Massachusetts
>S3
>Listed
>47
>36%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>Michigan
>S2/S3
>Threatened
>21-100
>42%
>no wild harvest allowed
>
>Minnesota
>S3
>Watch List
>21-100
>45%
>275,000
>
>Mississippi
>S3
>Watch List
>21-100
>37%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>Missouri
>S4
>none
>101-1000
>63%
>338,000
>
>Nebraska
>S1
>Threatened
>1-6
>11%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>New Hampshire
>S2
>Threatened
>28 extant, 13 historical
>90%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>New Jersey
>S2
>Species of Concern
>6-20
>5%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>New York
>S4
>none
>not available
>68%
>108,000
>
>North Carolina
>S4
>Watch List
>101-1000
>48%
>2,478,000
>
>Ohio
>SR
>none
>not available
>100%
>1,158,000
>
>Oklahoma
>S1
>Watch List
>1-6
>1%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>Pennsylvania
>S4
>none
>101-1000
>99%
>275,000
>
>Rhode Island
>S1
>Endangered
>6-20
>20%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>South Carolina
>none
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>South Dakota
>S1
>Rare
>1-6
>6%
>harvest is not known to occur
>
>Tennessee
>S3
>Watch List
>21-100
>85%
>2,927,000
>
>Vermont
>S2/S3
>Watch List
>15-50
>93%
>20,500
>
>Virginia
>S4
>Watch List
>101-1000
>70%
>1,028,000
>
>West Virginia
>S3/S4
>none
>20-500
>99%
>1,304,000
>
>Wisconsin
>S4
>none
>101-1000
>79%
>281,000
>
>
>1 Explanation of NatureServe ranking system is the following. Critically 
>imperiled (S1): typically 5 or fewer occurrences, or fewer than 1,000 
>individuals. Imperiled (S2): typically 6 to 20 occurrences with few 
>remaining individuals (1,000 to 3,000). Vulnerable (S3): typically 21 to 
>100 occurrences, with 3,000 to 10,000 individuals. Apparently secure (S4): 
>typically 100 occurrences with more than 10,000 individuals; the species is 
>considered uncommon but not rare. SR indicates that reports were received 
>from the States, but without persuasive documentation to assign a ranking.
>
>2 Percent of State counties with ginseng (Kauffman 2003).
>
>3. Estimates based on 2001 State harvest amounts and average number of dry 
>roots/pound.
>
>Table 2. Permits issued on USFS National Forests in the Southern Region 
>from 1999 to 2002.
>
>Southern Region National Forests
>Permits issued in 2002
>Permits issued in 2001
>Permits issued in 2000
>Permits issued in 1999
>
>The George Washington and Jefferson NF in Virginia, West Virginia, and 
>Kentucky.
>20
>32
>not available
>not available
>
>Chattahoochee NF in Georgia
>8
>11
>not available
>not available
>
>Daniel Boone NF in Kentucky
>56
>22
>not available
>not available
>
>Cherokee NF in Tennessee
>not available
>67.5
>79
>44
>
>Nantahala and Pisgah NF in North Carolina
>355
>787
>600
>400
>
>
>Table 3. McGraw (2003) monitoring results of 27 populations from two field 
>seasons (2001 and 2002).
>
>State
>Populations Monitored
>Number of Individuals
>Growth Rate
>
>Indiana
>1
>145
>0.98
>
>Kentucky
>9
>1460
>1.08
>
>Virginia
>5
>382
>0.98
>
>West Virginia
>12
>1533
>0.98
>
>Pooled
>27
>3520
>1.04
>
>
>Table 4. Results of the FWS-State Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis, Missouri, 
>February 19-21, 2003.
>
>Status and Management Issues
>Recommendations
>
>Monitoring - significant advances have made and were reported at the 
>workshop, but remains ongoing priority.
>Continue to advance monitoring efforts; review and implement low-intensity 
>monitoring protocol; coordinate monitoring on a range-wide level.
>
>Addressing biological issues - significant new research presented, but 
>research gaps remain and new biological issues identified.
>Undertake targeted research on issues, including: population dynamics and 
>viability analysis, impact of different management regimes, and genetics 
>and pollination biology.
>
>Funding - acknowledgment among group members of the catalytic role of FWS 
>and other seed money (including state-level) in research, but funding needs 
>to continue and be expanded.
>Identify funding sources; explore additional sources of funding at the 
>Federal and State levels, and within the industry and the private sector.
>
>Communication - increased communication required among and between Federal 
>and State agencies, industry, and other non-governmental players.
>Facilitate communication through Web site, listserve, and other appropriate 
>means.
>
>Age- and size-based restrictions on export of wild ginseng - discussion of 
>whether there is a need for further restrictions, and if so, what options 
>might be.
>Further evaluate approaches to controlling and monitoring ginseng harvest 
>and trade; considering different levels of the trade stream (e.g., digger, 
>dealer, export), ginseng characteristics that could be monitored (e.g., 
>prongs, roots/lb.) and authority at different levels of government.
>
>Law enforcement - increasing the profile and importance of law enforcement 
>in support of management efforts.
>Educate, share information and engage law enforcement on the ginseng issue 
>and involve them in future meetings; develop outreach materials aimed at 
>this audience.
>
>
>Table 5. Results of the FWS/State Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis Missouri, 
>February 19-21, 2003.
>
>Trade and Export Issues
>Recommendations
>
>Reporting requirements - consider the burden imposed on States and industry 
>and the utility to the data required for CITES findings.
>Continue to clarify, simplify and refine reporting requirements as 
>appropriate.
>
>Production system categories – clarify the production system categories and 
>determine the utility of using them for export reports.
>Further discussion within FWS and further input from stakeholders on 
>definitions, reporting, and ability to implement production system 
>categories.
>
>Education and outreach - key to implementation of management and trade 
>measures.
>Facilitate sharing of already available education and outreach materials 
>through improved communication mechanisms.
>
>Regional coordination - agreement regarding the need for more direct State 
>to State interaction in addition to FWS mediated consultation; discussion 
>of the utility of identifying ginseng bioregions.
>Explore mechanisms to increase inter-state, inter-agency (Federal) 
>communication, cooperation and coordination at bioregional level, while 
>maintaining FWS mediated consultation mechanisms; consider existing 
>groups/associations which might serve as a home for such efforts. The group 
>identified four possible regions for pilot efforts on information sharing, 
>consultation and coordination on management and law enforcement.1
>
>Future of USDA/APHIS - discussion on how the transfer of some APHIS 
>personnel to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) will impact 
>inspection of ginseng exports.
>Clarify future role of APHIS and DHS in ginseng inspections.
>
>Law enforcement at the State level - significant examples of ginseng 
>enforcement highlighted at the meeting.
>Raise profile of law enforcement efforts in future ginseng coordination 
>meetings.
>
>
>1 (AL, GA, KY, MD, NC, PA, SC, TN, VA, WV), (New England States, VT, NJ, 
>NY, PA & MD), (AR, MO, OH), (IA, IL, IN, KY, MI, MN, OH, WI, WV)
>
>Table 6. Current State ginseng regulations.
>
>State
>Harvest season
>Require seeds to be planted at site
>Minimum age (number of leaves/prongs) required for harvested plants
>
>Alabama
>Sept 1 - Dec 13
>yes
>3 prongs
>
>Arkansas
>Sept 1 - Dec 1
>yes
>5 years, 3 prongs
>
>Georgia
>Aug 15 - Dec 31
>yes
>3 prongs
>
>Illinois
>Last Saturday in August- Nov 1
>encouraged
>no requirement
>
>Indiana
>Sept 1 - Dec 31
>yes
>3 prongs, a flowering or fruiting stalk, or 4 internodes on root
>
>Iowa
>Sept 1- Oct 31
>yes
>3 prongs
>
>Kentucky
>Aug 15 - Dec 1
>yes
>5 years, 3 prongs
>
>Maryland
>Aug 20 - Dec 1
>yes
>5 years, 3 prongs
>
>Minnesota
>Sept 1 - Dec 31
>yes
>3 prongs
>
>Missouri
>Sept 1 - Dec 31
>yes
>3 prongs or plants with fruiting stems
>
>New York
>Sept 1 - Nov 30
>yes
>3 prongs
>
>North Carolina
>Sept 1 – April 1
>yes
>5 years, 3 prongs
>
>Ohio
>Sept 1 – Dec 31
>yes
>3 prongs
>
>Pennsylvania
>Aug 1 - Nov 30
>
>For 2003 season;
>
>Sept 1 - Nov 30
>
>For 2004 season, and thereafter
>yes
>3 prongs
>
>Tennessee
>Aug 15 - Dec 31
>yes
>5 years, 3 prongs
>
>Vermont
>Aug 20 - Oct 10
>yes
>5 years, 3 prongs
>
>Virginia
>Aug 15 - Dec 31
>no
>3 prongs
>
>West Virginia
>Aug 15 - Nov 30
>yes
>3 prongs
>
>Wisconsin
>Sept 1 – Nov 1
>yes
>3 prongs and mature fruits
>
>
>Figure 1. Map of American ginseng conservation status rank in the United 
>States and Canada (NatureServe 2000).
>
>Figure 2. Map of American ginseng range in the United States, the States 
>that export wild ginseng, and USFS lands (Kauffman 2003).
>
>Figure 3. American ginseng harvest data by county averaged for 1999 and 
>2000. Coloring of individual counties is delineated by white (no harvest), 
>grey (1-50 lbs), blue (51-100 lbs), green (101-200 lbs), yellow (201-400 
>lbs), red-brown (401-1000 lbs), and pink (> 1000 lbs) (Kauffman 2003).
>
>
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>
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>
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>
>======================
>
>Decline in stature of American Ginseng plants over two centuries.
>
>MCGRAW, J.B.* West Virginia University Morgantown WV 26506 USA ^1
>
>^snip--- Assuming herbarium specimens are representative of a consistent 
>portion of natural populations, either direct or indirect effects of 
>environmental change or human harvest could explain the rapid change in 
>ginseng 
>stature.http://abstracts.co.allenpress.com/pweb/esa2000/abstracts/JAM-3-81-5.html
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>-----------------------
>Sonya PLoS Medicine The open-access general medical journal from the Public 
>Library of Science Inaugural issue: Autumn 2004   Share your discoveries 
>with the world. http://www.plosmedicine.org
>
>
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