[MPWG] RE: ] Science paper on ginseng
Sonya
msredsonya at earthlink.net
Sat Feb 12 04:58:24 CST 2005
Some miscellaneous heres and theres that I have noted in regard to the
ginseng issue, deer browsing, and their control/approach and whatnot.
I read several of Mr. McGraw's previous studies on ginseng, the latest
one, the Fish and Wildlife reports and various other channels of
information about ginseng and some of the peripheral background issues.
I think there are other things factoring in here besides the deer
browsing. (((Decline in stature of American Ginseng plants over two
centuries.MCGRAW, J.B.* West Virginia University Morgantown WV 26506 USA
^1 ^snip--- Assuming herbarium specimens are representative of a
consistent portion of natural populations, either direct or indirect
effects of environmental change or human harvest could explain the rapid
change in ginseng
stature.http://abstracts.co.allenpress.com/pweb/esa2000/abstracts/JAM-3-81-5.html
)))
I snipped some of these findings and things that I found to be of note
or to be pertinent into the email.........I did not summarize the
material, everyone can conclude from the material what they would
like........ Another paper, different conclusion, and a different
approach to to topic.........The creation of a seed bank derived of all
the species and varieties...
https://drum.umd.edu/dspace/ bitstream/1903/1901/1/umi-umd-1881.pdf.......
Not all species of ginseng would fall under CITES II
classification......there are some species that are exempt. There was an
exception granted by the Fish and Wildlife department under the CITES
Regulations in 2003 to a commonly used format in relation to ginseng as
it relates to the Field-cultivated ginseng, per their use of references
as it being a commonly used format for growing Ginseng. Per their use of
standard protocol--- ginseng shown to be proven as artificially
propagated “under controlled conditions with human intervention” would
fall outside the CITES regulations.
Please see the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, International Affairs
December 11, 2003 MEMORANDUM I posted below
.....as well as the Ginseng Findings from 2003 and 2004
<http://international.fws.gov/ginseng/2003-2004ginsengfinding.htm> /U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, /International Affairs which makes note of
several references to the poaching of ginseng as well as over harvesting
of ginseng asother issues regarding ginseng that would need to be
addressed....
http://international.fws.gov/ginseng/Artpropginseng.htm
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, International Affairs
December 11, 2003
MEMORANDUM
To: Chief, Division of Management Authority
From: Chief, Branch of Consultation and Monitoring, Division of
Scientific Authority
Subject: General advice on artificially propagated American ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius L.) from States with approved CITES export programs
The Division of Scientific Authority has determined that specimens of
field-cultivated American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) and its
recognizable parts, including roots of any age, reported from the
following States: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana,
Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New
York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania,
Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin,
will be considered artificially propagated as defined by CITES
Resolution Conf. 11.11.
This general advice does not apply to woods-grown (woods-cultivated) and
wild-simulated American ginseng. The Division of Scientific Authority
has been unable to determine that the methods used to produce
woods-grown and wild-simulated American ginseng consistently meet the
criteria of CITES Resolution Conf. 11.11 for artificially propagated
specimens. Therefore, we have included specimens of woods-grown and
wild-simulated American ginseng in our non-detriment finding on the
export of wild American ginseng.
We will continue to monitor State reports, and actual exports of
cultivated ginseng roots, with the understanding that this general
advice may be modified in the future, if deemed necessary, based on any
new pertinent information that becomes available.
American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is hereafter referred to
simply as “ginseng.”
BASIS FOR ADVICE
Ginseng was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1975.
Ginseng is a slow-growing, long-lived herbaceous perennial indigenous to
eastern North America, occurring in southern Canada (Ontario and
Quebec), west to South Dakota and Oklahoma, and south to Georgia (Small
and Catling 1999; NatureServe 2001). The States of Idaho, North Dakota,
Oregon, and Washington, included in this general advice, are outside the
species’ range.
Ginseng has long been recognized as a valuable horticultural crop
because of the properties of its roots for both herbal and medicinal
purposes (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2003). The United States is
the world's second-largest producer of field-cultivated ginseng
(Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2003). The major center for
field-cultivated ginseng in the United States is Wisconsin (mostly in
Marathon County), where 80% (approximately 3,800 acres) of the
cultivated ginseng in the United States is grown (Hankins 1997; Small
and Catling 1999).
Ginseng cultivation in the United States began sometime around the 1880s
as wild ginseng was becoming scarce (Tellico Plains Mountain Press
2003). By the early 1900s, the U.S. Department of Agriculture
recommended the cultivation of ginseng for its highly valued root
(Koehler 1912). Growers originally collected ginseng seed from local
wild populations for cultivation (Boehm et al. 1999; Proctor et al.
1999), and also transplanted wild roots into gardens (Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada 2003). Further expansion of ginseng was achieved by
planting seeds produced from wild-collected plant material grown in
cultivation (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2003).
The optimum seeding rate for field-cultivated ginseng is between 80 and
100 pounds of seed per acre (Brun 1999). There are approximately 8,000
seeds per pound. Field-cultivated ginseng is usually harvested by the
third or fourth year because of diseases that threaten older plantings
(Beyfuss 1999; Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2003). Yields range from
2,000 to 4,000 pounds of dried roots per acre (Hankins 1997; Brun 1998).
Roots of field-cultivated plants are usually cream colored, smooth and
fat in shape, and exhibit few concentric rings as compared to wild
ginseng roots, and typically have a shorter rhizome (neck) than wild
ginseng roots (Hankins 1997).
Ginseng may be exported under the exemption for artificially propagated
specimens if it meets the specific criteria established in CITES
Resolution Conf. 11.11. We have determined that specimens of cultivated
ginseng and its recognizable parts, including roots of any age, reported
from the States covered in this general advice will be considered
artificially propagated as defined by the CITES Resolution Conf. 11.11.
Our decision is based on our evaluation of the following known
cultivation practices used to produce ginseng in the United States.
[Criteria of Resolution Conf. 11.11 are shown in italics.]
a) The term ‘artificially propagated’ shall be interpreted to refer only
to live plants grown from seeds, cuttings, divisions, callus tissues or
other plant tissues, or other propagules under controlled conditions;
and that ‘controlled conditions’ means in a non-natural environment that
is intensively manipulated by human intervention for the purpose of
producing selected species or hybrids.
Field-cultivated ginseng is grown as a monoculture in raised beds under
artificial shade of 70-80% (Beyfuss 1999). Cultivation techniques used
for field-grown ginseng include standard horticultural practices
consisting of mechanical tillage, fertilization, weed control,
irrigation, and pesticides. Specialized tractors, sprayers, and diggers
have become common on larger corporate ginseng farms that constitute the
bulk of the industry. Ginseng seed and/or 1-3-year-old transplant roots
(rootlets) are commercially grown on farms (Beyfuss 1999). Planting
artificially stratified seed is the principal method used to propagate
ginseng.1
b) the cultivated parental stock used for artificial propagation must be:
i) established in accordance with the provisions of CITES and relevant
national laws and in a manner not detrimental to the survival of the
species in the wild; and
Ginseng farms and nurseries are regulated by the States covered in this
advice, and therefore must operate in accordance with all applicable
State and Federal regulations. Growers of field-cultivated ginseng
either produce their own seed or transplant roots or obtain such
propagules from other commercial operations.
ii) managed in such a way that long-term maintenance of the cultivated
stock is
guaranteed.
Field-cultivated ginseng has been intensively grown in the United States
for over 100 years. There are approximately 3,800 acres of
field-cultivated ginseng intensively grown under artificial shade
(Hankins 1997). Commercial ginseng growers maintain a sufficient number
of cultivated parental stock plants to meet their long-term planting
needs, or purchase commercially available propagules (seeds and
transplant roots) for outplanting.
c) seeds shall be regarded as artificially propagated only if they are
taken from the specimens acquired in accordance with the provisions of
paragraph (b) and grown under controlled conditions; or from parental
stock artificially propagated in accordance with paragraph (a).
Ginseng seed is artificially propagated from cultivated parental stock,
that is, grown under controlled conditions (fertilization, irrigation,
tillage, pest and weed control) in a non-natural environment (raised
beds under artificial shade). Cultivated ginseng plants require a
minimum of three years of growth to produce seeds for outplanting.
Planting artificially stratified seed is the principal method of
propagating field-cultivated ginseng.
d) all other parts and derivatives shall be regarded as being
artificially propagated only if they are taken from specimens that have
been artificially propagated in accordance with the provisions of
paragraph (a).
As described in this general advice, standard horticultural practices
are used to grow field-cultivated ginseng; therefore, we consider all
parts of such plants as artificially propagated.
____________________________
1Stratified seed is subjected to a 12 month period of storage in moist
sand with a warm/cold treatment to after-ripen the embryo of the seed
before germination can occur.
==========================================
Illegal poaching of Ginseng.........
snip-----------http://www.naturalresources.umd.edu/Pages/BO_Fall2002.
Security Measures
The greatest threat to a crop of wild simulated ginseng is human theft.
Criminals who think nothing of "No Trespassing" signs know they are more
likely to find more ginseng on someone’s property than in public forests
where legal gatherers search. Many will wait just prior to the harvest.
One advantage for growers in the piedmont region is that many residents
are unfamiliar with ginseng or its value. The references provide ideas
on improving security for your ginseng patch.
snip---------
In the last 10 years, park law enforcement rangers have seized nearly
11,000 illegally harvested ginseng roots in the national park. Park
staff believe that only a small percentage of the roots actually poached
from the park are detected, despite routine ranger patrols. In an effort
to track the health of ginseng populations throughout the park, staff of
the Resource Management and Science Division have weighed and dated more
than 9,000 of the confiscated roots. Undamaged roots are then replanted
for monitoring. Confiscated roots as young as one to three years have
been processed. Sadly, plants younger than five years of age are usually
not mature and have not had the opportunity to contribute seeds to the
population (the only method of reproduction for this species).
http://www2.nature.nps.gov/YearInReview/yir2001/05_risks/05_2_rock.html
snip-----http://www.imagesbuilder.com/gsmnp/poachers.html
Superintendent Karen P. Wade reported that over the past several years
ginseng poaching has become one of the most frequent and damaging
resource crimes committed in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Its
continued high commercial value has directly contributed to an increase
in theft of the plant
snip-------------http://www.npca.org/magazine/2005/winter/poaching3.asp
Ken Johnson, a recently retired criminal investigator based at
Shenandoah National Park, cites a pilot project in which database
information from scientists is merged with law enforcement violator
information to understand patterns such as bear and ginseng poaching,
then predict where violators will be and successfully intercept them.
Ginseng is federally protected as a species of "special concern,
threatened due to exploitation." The plant can be legally harvested with
proper permission on private and some public lands, including three
national forests that adjoin the Great Smokies. Prime dried wild roots
from legal harvest areas sell for $350 to $400 per pound and must be
certified for transport across state or international boundaries.
Ginseng roots constitute a large percentage of the
$7 billion annual world trade in medicinal herbs. Much of the herbs
traded on the black market come from the Appalachian Mountains. Certain
Asian buyers covet the ginseng roots stolen from national parks for
their purity and physical appearance, important aspects of traditional
healing treatments and use as an aphrodisiac.
"I can't imagine people walking into the Smithsonian and carrying away
artifacts," says Jim Northup, yet he knows casual thieves and
well-organized crime groups are stripping Appalachian parks of ginseng,
goldenseal, and orchids. Illegal harvest of ginseng was so prevalent in
the Smokies during the 1990s that rangers seized 11,000 illicit roots.
During the last eight years, Jim Corbin, a North Carolina Department of
Agriculture plant protection specialist, has developed a simple
procedure for tagging ginseng with benign material that contains
magnetic coded marking chips and color-coded fluorescent dye. Together
these ingredients produce an easily detected signature that infiltrates
ginseng tissue and reveals the exact location plants have grown. Diggers
apprehended with contraband roots are cited, and dealers who purchase
them may lose entire stocks worth thousands of dollars.
Teams of state and Park Service personnel blitz the Smokies annually,
marking large numbers of plants in diverse locations, widening a
protective barrier that is repelling poachers. "What we are doing is
working," says Corbin. "When the program began, we started monitoring a
stand of young ginseng located where poachers would plunder it-those
plants have since tripled in size. In the past three years, we've also
launched a serious crackdown on ginseng dealers [including use of
canines trained to sniff out the roots], and all of them have been
compliant."
Encouraged by this successful marking program, resource managers at Blue
Ridge Parkway, Shenandoah, Mammoth Cave, Cumberland Gap, and several
Canadian provincial parks are attaching similar signature markers to
ginseng and other high-dollar poaching targets such as goldenseal, black
cohosh, blue cohosh, bloodroot, lady's slipper orchids, lilies,
trillium, and galax. Similar technology has been tested to deter theft
of petrified wood from preserves in Arizona.
=============
9. The U.S. Forest Service in North Carolina has implemented a marking
program, similar to that used by the National Park Service, to curtail
the illegal poaching of ginseng in wilderness and other protected areas
(National Forest in North Carolina, August 29, 2000).
10. Recently, the Appalachian Ginseng Foundation of Kentucky identified
American ginseng poaching to be a major threat to private landowners and
public wooded lands (Appalachian Ginseng Foundation Newsletter, 2001, No.6).
snip----------
Ohio Ginseng Policy Work Update
By Chip Carroll
In 2003 the W.K. Kellogg Foundation funded Appalachian Ohio non-profit
group Rural Action (www.ruralaction.org), to work on state ginseng
policy. Through Rural Action Forestry’s experience in working with
medicinal plant producers since 1998, it was clear that poaching was the
biggest problem facing not only growers but also wild ginseng
populations. Rural Action’s Forestry Program decided to focus on ginseng
poaching and the current policies that govern ginseng harvesting in Ohio.
The Forestry Program at Rural Action had actually been working on the
ginseng poaching issue since 1999, focusing primarily on getting the
opening date of harvest season for ginseng moved back and working with
growers on cultivation and security issues. A committee of local
growers, harvesters and botanists has provided guidance along with way
in developing a plan for pursuing this issue.
The committee has come up with several ideas. These include developing a
stricter, more enforceable ginseng poaching law in Ohio, generating
income from ginseng harvesting to help the state enforce the laws via
licensing for harvesters, and doing educational outreach to growers,
harvesters, judges, prosecutors and law enforcement personnel. We have
been able to meet with and garner some support from the Ohio Division of
Natural Resources (ODNR), who in 2003 moved the opening of harvest
season from August 15th to September 1st. We have begun an educational
campaign including the development of a website dedicated to ginseng
poaching issues (www.growginseng.org), development of educational
materials and handouts, and a new “Grow it, don’t poach it – Protect
Appalachian Heritage” ginseng t-shirt.
Currently we are trying to collect stories from individuals who have
been poached and do some interviews with anyone willing to share a story
about ginseng growing, harvesting and poaching. We are going to be
producing an educational video in 2004 that will be aimed at educating
the judges, prosecutors and law enforcement personnel about the
importance of combating the poaching problem here in Ohio.
If you would like to get involved or have a story to share, please
contact Chip Carroll at (740) 742-4401 or chipc at ruralaction.org
<mailto:chipc at ruralaction.org>
-----------------------------------
snip-------http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/forestry/ginseng.htm
*John A. Scott, Jr., Sam Rogers, and David Cooke
<mailto:David.Cooke at mail.wvu.edu>
WVU Cooperative Extension Service Agents
Bobbi Lynn Fry Research Assistant, Mercer County *June 1995
*Predator Control*
Predators, both animal and human, are one of the two main limitations to
growing ginseng. In areas where deer, wild turkey, and livestock are a
problem, fencing may be required. Use a low, woven-wire fence topped
with a strand or two of electric fence. Leave alleys every 100 feet to
allow deer and turkey passageways. Fencing also may help keep human
predators from digging the crop.
In seed production, watch the seeds when they begin to turn red. If you
have squirrels in the area, they can rapidly destroy your seed crop.
Look for seed hulls on the ground and entire seed heads destroyed. You
may have to eliminate the squirrels. Also, wild turkeys can be a real
problem during seed production. Woven-wire fence will eliminate most
turkey problems.
In areas where livestock graze or could graze by accident, make sure to
fence your patches. Livestock damage comes from the animals eating the
ginseng and trampling the plants.
*Security*
Security is very important. A major problem with security from humans in
West Virginia is the attitude that many people have concerning the
ownership of ginseng. Many feel that since ginseng is a wild plant, they
have the right to hunt and dig it on anyone's land. Even law enforcement
officers are reluctant to arrest trespassers or thieves in ginseng
territory. With this prevalent attitude, security is a real problem.
First, tell no one you are raising ginseng. Also, you may want to cut
the leaves and stems off in the fall before hunting season. This may
help keep people from accidentally finding your patch.
Some growers are experimenting with video cameras, alarm systems, guard
dogs, and high tensile electric fencing. Most rely on being around the
premises. However, this is false hope. Ginseng has been stolen from
patches on the edges of home lawns.Another strategy is to give roots to
neighbors to plant so they also will be alert to strangers or suspicious
people in the area. This places everyone in the area as growers of
ginseng, no matter how small the patch.
One big problem with security is the time required to grow ginseng.
Other people can watch your patch develop and dig it before you do.
Therefore, when the patch is of harvest age, you must dig it first.As
you develop your ginseng, check with your Farm Service Center or
insurance company to see if crop insurance is available. Also, a grower
can call all dealers when a significant amount of roots are stolen and
ask them to contact him or her when the roots show up. Most diggers will
try to sell roots for wild. This tactic is very easy to detect.
Wild-simulated roots are all the same age, and woods-cultivated roots
can be easily identified by characteristics and a soil test. Some buyers
can tell who produced the roots by just looking at them.
Also, remember that law enforcement officials will do very little if
your land is not posted. Make sure you place the posted signs correctly,
that they have the necessary information, and that they are spaced at
proper distances.Many growers are planting totally in the wild situation
in order not to disturb the forest; this may conceal the location
better. Others are planting a large area and are willing to allow some
to be stolen.There is no miracle security cure-all. One must deal with
the problems associated with security.
*Pest Control*
Mice are a real problem in growing ginseng. They use mole holes for
runways and eat the ginseng roots. The mulch makes an ideal home for
them. Use mouse baits and check ginseng patches frequently. Mouse traps
placed in blocks or other hiding places may help.
Voles, also known as field mice or orchard mice, are small rodents that
cause serious damage to ginseng. Voles burrow into a ginseng bed and eat
the roots. There are no repellents available for controlling voles;
however, the use of rodenticide and baits is effective. Baits seem to be
the best method. An example of a bait is to place a poison in the holes
of a brick, cover the brick with a plastic bucket, and then cut holes in
the rim of the bucket for access on all sides. This way, the poison is
kept dry and away from larger animals. Growers report fish-flavored Rami
Green to be the vole bait of choice. Some growers use plastic tubing,
rodent barriers, and traps; others simply have cats or owls around.
These methods will work for mice, too. Study your environment and
determine what tactic works best for you.
========================================
As far as digging for ginseng on other sources........
snip--------http://www.wvforestry.com/ginseng.cfm?menucall=ginseng
Collection of Ginseng in West Virginia is regulated by State law.
Ginseng roots are to be dug only between August 15 and November 30 each
year. Ginseng diggers, often called "sangers," are required to sow the
seeds from harvested plants at the site of the digging, thereby
perpetuating the species in its native habitat. During the digging
season landowners may dig Ginseng on their own land or give written
permission to others to dig on their land. Digging without written
permission on posted or enclosed land is a criminal act and subject to
fines and imprisonment. Ginseng buyers must obtain a permit from the WV
Division of Forestry. Possession of uncertified Ginseng between April 1
and August 14 is illegal and substantial penalties are imposed on
violators.
Ginseng has been harvested as a cash crop in West Virginia for at least
200 years. In 2002, more than 6,400 pounds of Ginseng, worth more than
$2 million, were dug in West Virginia. Ginseng Harvest records from 1978
to 1999 for wild and cultivated plants are available by clicking Wild
Ginseng Harvest History and Cultivated Ginseng Harvest History.
================================
Ginseng Findings 2000 Fish and Wildlife Services
http://international.fws.gov/animals/gingfind.html
snip-----------
10. The Service agrees with claims that economic factors (such as the
Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, price of roots, and the current
low unemployment rate in the United States) may have influenced demand
for and harvest of American ginseng in the last few years. In fact,
research conducted at West Virginia University found a correlation
between harvest levels and unemployment (personal communication with Mr.
Brent Bailey). However, no correlation was found between price and
harvest amounts. Biotic and abiotic factors (such as deer browsing and
drought), as well as habitat destruction, also have a negative impact on
wild ginseng populations.
11. However, based on all of the information detailed above, we continue
to believe that recent declines in many States in the amount of wild
American ginseng harvested are greatly related to population declines
associated with overharvest, particularly of young individuals that have
not reached reproductive age. We are seriously concerned that this
overharvest, in addition to the other factors affecting the species,
threatens wild populations of this species and the livelihoods of those
citizens who depend on this plant as a source of income.
15. In addition to monitoring, the Service is also funding research at
West Virginia University to examine, among other things, the status of
wild ginseng in West Virginia; the utility of some population indices
currently being used by OSA to assess the status of wild populations of
ginseng; the importance of timing of harvest season; and the possible
effects of deer browsing and dispersal of seeds by deer and turkey.
Preliminary results indicate that:
a. Current harvest seasons in many States are unrelated to plant
phenology and may be detrimental to the long-term survival of the
species. Specifically, many States allow harvest of plants before
seeds ripen, thus reducing the chances of seed germination, even if
these are planted as required by most States. *OSA encourages the
States to review their harvest seasons (Table 1) to address this
problem. States should also coordinate with neighboring States to
establish similar harvest seasons to discourage unscrupulous diggers
from harvesting roots before the start of the harvest season in
their State and selling the roots in neighboring States where the
harvest season already has started.*
b. Germination rates are affected by the depth at which seeds are
buried: low at 0 cm, highest at 2 cm, decreasing thereafter. *OSA
encourages States to share these findings with diggers and dealers
to increase germination rates of planted seeds.*
c. There is a negative correlation between densities of deer and
ginseng plants.
========================================
http://international.fws.gov/ginseng/2003-2004ginsengfinding.htm
August 5, 2003
To:
Chief, Division of Management Authority
From:
Chief, Division of Scientific Authority
Subject:
Convention Permit Applications for Wild Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)
Harvested in 2003 and 2004
This document constitutes our finding on the export of wild American
ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, for the 2003 and 2004 harvest seasons.
Please, be advised that, based on our analysis of available information,
we find that the export of wild American ginseng roots of 5 years of age
or older (i.e., with five or more bud-scale scars on the rhizome)
harvested during the 2003-2004 seasons in the following States will not
be detrimental to the survival of the species: Alabama, Arkansas,
Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota,
Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee,
Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
We will continue to monitor the status of American ginseng in the wild,
with the understanding that the above finding and associated
restrictions may be modified for exports of American ginseng harvested
in 2004 if deemed necessary based on any new information that we may
receive. In 2005, we will re-evaluate the status of this species,
including the outcome of various actions being taken at the State and
Federal levels, as described in this finding.
BASIS FOR ADVICE
To ensure that American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) remains viable
throughout its range in the United States and to determine whether the
export of American ginseng will not be detrimental to the survival of
the species, DSA annually reviews available information from various
sources (other Federal agencies, State regulatory agencies, industry and
associations, non-governmental organizations, and researchers) on the
status and biology of the species, and specifically for each State from
which American ginseng roots are exported.
Biology, ecology, and range of the species
1. American ginseng (hereafter referred to as “ginseng”) is a
slow-growing, long-lived (50 plus years) herbaceous perennial of the
Araliaceae family (Lewis and Zenger 1982). The species is endemic to
Eastern North America, occurring in southern Canada (Ontario and Quebec)
west to South Dakota and Oklahoma and south to Georgia (Small and
Catling 1999; NatureServe 2001).
2. Ginseng is a species of stable habitats, such as the understory of
mid-successional to late-successional deciduous forests (Charron and
Gagnon 1991). Plants emerge after the leaf canopy has partially or fully
developed (Lewis and Zenger 1982).
3. Although ginseng can grow on a wide variety of soil textures and
topographic conditions, it requires moist soils and sites of low
evapotranspiration loss (Anderson et al. 1993).
4. Below ground, ginseng forms a thick taproot, a special underground
stem known as a vertical rhizome sits on top of the main root and sends
up the above-ground stem each year. The rhizome is characterized by
large scars that form as a result of the annual abscission or accidental
loss of the single subterminal aerial stem. These annual scars are
well-marked on the rhizome and can be counted to determine the age of
the plant (Lewis and Zenger 1982). Growth rate varies among individuals,
so plants with the same number of leaves and leaflets may be close but
not identical in age (Anderson 2002).
5. Ginseng leaves are whorled, palmately compound, with three to five
leaflets (Radford et al. 1981). An individual whorled leaf with a
petiole is referred to as a “prong,” and is commonly used to indicate
the size-class or age of individual ginseng plant (Lewis and Zenger
1983; Lockard and Swanson 1998).
6. Typically, ginseng has been divided into four size-classes based on
the number of leaves or prongs. Generally, one-prong plants (with 3-5
leaflets) are 2 years of age, two-prong plants (with 10 leaflets) ranged
from 3 to 6 years of age, three-prong plants (with 15 leaflets) ranged
from 7 to 9 years of age, and four-prong plants (with 20 leaflets)
ranged from 10 to 11 years of age (Anderson et al. 1993). Four- and
five-prong plants represent the oldest individuals of a population
(Lewis and Zenger 1983).
7. Wild ginseng plants do not reproduce until they are at least 4 years
of age (Carpenter and Cottam1982; Anderson et al. 1993; Dunwiddie and
Anderson 1999).
8. Ginseng has perfect flowers (bisexual flowers): an individual flower
has both stamens (male) and carpels (female) (Carpenter and Cottam 1982;
Lewis and Zenger 1982; Schlessman 1985). Although ginseng does have a
high natural rate of self-fertilization (Schlessman 1985), outcrossing
(cross-pollination) between plants has been reported (Carpenter and
Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983). However, ginseng is not apomictic:
capable of producing seed without any form of fertilization (Carpenter
and Cottam 1982).
9. Ginseng is not an obligate outcrosser (Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
Ginseng flowers have been observed to be pollinated with and without
pollinator assistance (Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983;
Schlessman 1985). Small bees in the family Halictidae and flies in the
family Syrphidae appear to be the major pollinators of ginseng
(Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985).
However, these pollinators probably do not transfer pollen between
distant individuals (Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
10.Ginseng fruits turn red at maturity and typically are two-seeded in
each berry-like fruit (Lewis and Zenger 1983). Although very infrequent,
ginseng fruit can yield three and four seeds (Anderson et al. 1984;
Schlessman 1985). A typical flowering 4-year-old wild ginseng plant may
produce 30-40 fruits on each inflorescence (Proctor and Bailey 1987).
11.The fecundity (number of offspring) of ginseng is low, and seed
production is positively correlated with age and size of the population
(Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985).
Seed mortality is high, and is the most precarious portion of ginseng’s
life cycle (Lewis and Zenger 1982). Ginseng does not form a long-term
seed bank (Anderson et al. 1984; Charron and Gagnon 1991).
12.To germinate, seeds require an after-ripening process (warm-cold
sequence of temperature changes) that averages 18-22 months (Lewis and
Zenger 1982; Proctor and Bailey 1987). The embryo is inactive during the
first winter, matures during the next growing season, and then endures a
second winter before it is able to germinate (Hu et al. 1980). Asexual
(vegetative) reproduction of ginseng due to rhizome or root
fragmentation is very rare and unknown in most populations (Lewis 1988).
13.Ginseng is physiologically adapted to low light levels, reaching
light saturation (the intensity at which an increase in light does not
increase photosynthesis) at levels as low as 10% of full sunlight,
whereas maximum growth occurs up to 30% of full sunlight (Proctor 1980).
At moderate high light levels, ginseng can experience leaf chlorosis,
(yellowing caused by loss of or reduced development of chlorophyll)
(Gagnon 1999), early leaf senescence, or depressed growth (Anderson 2002).
14.Ginseng plants can senesce (a natural die-back of the plant) during
the summer, after the new terminal bud has formed, and can appear
“dormant” at the time of fall harvesting (Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
More often, it is the largest plants that are likely to senesce early in
the summer and as a result do not produce any seed in that year
(Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
15.True dormancy in ginseng (failure to produce a vegetative stem) is
far less common than early leaf senescence, and can result when there
has been physical damage to the plant (e.g., animal damage) (Carpenter
and Cottam 1982).
16. Figure 1 (page 28) shows the range of ginseng in North America and
its conservation status according to NatureServe, a non-profit
organization that compiles and assesses data on plants, animals, and
ecological communities collected by the 50 State Natural Heritage
Programs, and Canada (NatureServe: An online encyclopedia of life [web
application]. 2001. Version 1.4. Arlington, Virginia, USA. URL:
http://www.natureserve.org/. Accessed June 2, 2003).
Research and monitoring of American ginseng
1. Field studies of ginseng have found that ginseng is highly
self-fertile (Schluter and Punja 2000), and pollination can occur
between flowers on a single flower head (umbel) or between flower heads.
Furthermore, self-pollinated flowers produce the same proportion of
seeds as outcrossed (cross-fertilized) flowers (Carpenter and Cottam
1982; Schlessman 1985). Schlessman (1985) suggested that the high
pollen-to-ovule ratio of ginseng inflorescences promotes adequate
pollination even though pollinator visits are infrequent. The author
speculated that female reproductive success of ginseng is probably
governed by the amount of photosynthate allocated to reproduction,
rather than by abundance or efficiency of pollinators (Schlessman 1985).
2. Schluter and Punja (2000) confirmed Schlessman and other researchers’
observations that ginseng’s ability to produce flowers that mature into
fruit increases with the age and size of the plant, and is regulated by
the availability of site resources, such as nutrients, water, sunlight
(Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985).
4. A 10-year (1986-1996) demographic study conducted by Dunwiddie and
Anderson (1999) on two wild populations of ginseng in Massachusetts
found that the number of individual plants that produced fruit varied
considerably among years, ranging from 0.5% to 33% (Dunwiddie and
Anderson 1999).
5. Field research conducted by Lewis and Zenger (1983) found that only
0.6% of wild ginseng seeds germinated after 20 months. Although the
researchers found that the ginseng seeds that did germinate had a high
probability (97%) of developing to adulthood (Lewis and Zenger 1983). In
contrast in experimental field tests where seeds were sown by humans,
germination rates were 55-75%.
6. Monitoring results of 10 wild ginseng populations in West Virginia
found that 90% of ginseng seeds remain within 2 meters of the parental
plant (Van der Voot cited in McGraw 2003).
7. Researchers in Canada have determined that the minimum viable
population (MVP) size for ginseng in Canada is 172 plants, including
reproductive and non-reproductive individuals (Nantel et al. 1996). This
number was based on the large quantity of fruits (seeds) produced, no
large plant dormancy or senescence of individuals, and an average
population growth rate of 1.04 (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers.
comm.).
8. Based on a data set from 1998 to 2001, Dr. Gagnon calculated the MVP
size for ginseng in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) to
be 510 individuals. The estimated size for the GSMNP is much larger than
the 172 MVP size for Canada, because, in the GSMNP, populations have a
low average growth rate, plants produced fewer fruits (seeds), and some
large plants remain dormant or senesce (Gagnon 2003). Dr. Gagnon
speculated that a MVP of 510 in the GSMNP may also be related to
droughts during the third and fourth years of the study, and that that
the remaining populations of ginseng in the park are located on marginal
sites because poachers have extirpated ginseng from its preferred
habitat (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
9. A demographic study of six ginseng populations (501 plants) in the
GSMNP found that 45% of all plants had three prongs and only 8.6% had
four prongs. The population growth rates were close to 1.0 (i.e., a
stable population), which indicated that, for the populations to remain
viable, no harvesting could occur (J. Rock et al. 1999).
10.According to Dr. Gagnon, in general, populations that are growing
(even slowly) will have a smaller MVP size than populations that are
stable or declining (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
11.Wild-harvesting of ginseng removes the largest reproductive
individuals from populations (Charron and Gagnon 1991), which reduces
population sizes and the ability of populations to recover (Hackney and
McGraw 2001). Research by Hackney and McGraw (2001) shows that small
populations of ginseng may be particularly vulnerable to the Allee
effect. The Allee effect is when the fertility and survival of
individuals of small populations may be diminished once population size
descends below a critical threshold (Lande 1987; Caswell 1989; Veit and
Lewis 1996; Groom 1998).
12.Hackney and McGraw (2001) tested for reproductive limitations due to
small population size (a form of the Allee effect) by experimentally
planting 453 individuals of 4-year-old cultivated ginseng plants in
small groups. Plant size traits, reproductive traits, and pollinator
visits were recorded. According to the researchers, their findings
demonstrate that the reduced number of fruits per flower and the reduced
number of fruits per plant are consistent with the operation of an Allee
effect. They concluded that, for ginseng, knowledge of the presence as
well as the mechanism underlying this Allee effect may be especially
useful for the management and determination of minimum viable population
size of the species in the wild.
13. Charron and Gagnon (1991) found that the maximum sustainable rate of
harvest of ginseng is the rate at which mean growth rate exceeds from
the equilibrium value of 1.00 (population stability or maintenance).
14. Nantel (1996) and other researchers have calculated that the
percentage of sustainable harvest for many native plants, including
ginseng, is between 5% and 8% of a population, spread over each
size-class of plants. For example, a wild population of 172 plants
consisting of individuals in all size-classes (0=seedlings to 4=four
leaved plants) would have approximately 55 plants of size-classes 3 and
4. A harvest of 5% of the larger-sized plants would yield 2.9 or 3
plants per year, therefore leaving approximately 52 plants of the
larger-size classes (Nantel et al. 1996).
15. Research by Dr. McGraw, of the University of West Virginia, found
that the annual sustainable harvest rate for ginseng should be no more
than 5% in West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee (the top three leading
exporters of wild ginseng in the United States). A harvest rate of 5%
would mean that only 5% of plants within a size-class should be
harvested. However, a harvester will usually harvest all plants (100%)
of the larger plants (three-leaved plants and larger), and may
occasionally leave the smaller-sized plants (Nantel et al. 1996; Gagnon
1999).
16. Researchers have concluded that low seed production, slow growth,
and poor seed dispersal have prevented historically harvested ginseng
populations from expanding to occupy other suitable sites, or from
recolonizing habitats where it use to grow (Dunwiddie and Anderson 1999;
Rosser and Haywood 2002). As a result, populations may become restricted
and isolated as suitable habitat is fragmented by logging (Rosser and
Haywood 2002).
17. Examination by West Virginia University researchers of 915 herbarium
specimens of ginseng, deposited in 17 herbaria across the country and
collected randomly over a period of 186 years, revealed a significant
decrease in the height of wild plants, most of which were collected
since 1900 (McGraw 2001). This reduction in plant size was
region-specific, with specimens from the northern portion of the
species’ range in North America remaining the same size, whereas
specimens from the core of the species’ range (the midwestern,
Appalachian, and southern populations) declined in size. Dr. McGraw
speculated that the change in the physical size of the specimens was a
direct consequence of harvest pressure. Additionally, other researchers
have found that the number of ginseng specimens collected for herbaria
also declined during the 20th Century, whereas the number of specimens
of other closely related species remained the same or increased (K.
Flinn, The College of William and Mary, pers. comm.).
18. Anderson (2002) studied 950 commercially harvested wild ginseng
roots from 11 States and found no significant relationship between age
and root weight for individual states. However, there was a tendency for
harvested roots from southern states to have younger mean ages than
those harvested from northern states. Furthermore, there was a linear
increase in root weight with an increase in latitude for the 11 States.
Dr. Anderson’s work supports similar findings by McGraw (2001) that
suggest harvest pressure is greater in the southern States than in the
northern States.
19. Several researchers have suggested that local ginseng populations
are highly adapted to local conditions, and that artificial seeding
(with non-local seed) may lead to local loss of fitness, which could
lead to an erosion of the gene pool (H. Grubbs and Dr. M. Case Ginseng
Conference, Louisville, Kentucky, 2000).
20. Holly Grubbs and Dr. Case of the College of William and Mary found
that there is high genetic variability among wild ginseng populations,
and low genetic variability within populations (Ginseng Conference,
Louisville, Kentucky, 2000).
21. Using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) genetic analysis,
researchers found that sampled wild populations of ginseng in North
Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, and several cultivated specimens
were genetically diverse and different from each other (Boehm et al.
1999). Furthermore, the researchers found that specimens of ginseng from
the GSMNP appeared to have a unique genetic integrity, which may
represent a distinct center of genetic diversity, as displayed with the
coordination of genetic values calculated with RAPD bands. However, the
researchers also found that wild specimens of ginseng collected in
Pennsylvania displayed low genetic diversity and were similar to
cultivated specimens of ginseng. They concluded that, in areas with a
history of ginseng harvest, wild ecotypes may be mixed with cultivated
varieties (Boehm et al. 1999).
Status, Protection, Harvest, and Trade
1. Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) was listed in Appendix II of CITES
in 1975. In 1983, we required that all ginseng to be exported had to be
certified as either wild or cultivated [artificially propagated]
(Carlson 1986). In 1999, to further protect wild populations, we
determined that only wild ginseng roots of 5 years of age or older may
be exported.
2. The primary cause of decline for ginseng is that of exploitation by
harvesters in response to consumer demand (NatureServe 2001). The
species is designated as “Endangered” in Canada; the export of
wild-harvested ginseng roots is prohibited by law (COSEWIC 2001). In the
United States, wild-collection of ginseng is not permitted or is
discouraged in Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan,
and Rhode Island due to declines in populations. Under State laws,
ginseng is listed as “endangered” in Maine and as “threatened” in
Michigan. Declines have been documented on National Park (NP) lands,
U.S. Forest Service (USFS) lands, and throughout many other areas within
the species’ range, including in Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Kentucky, Minnesota, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West
Virginia, and Wisconsin.
3. Table 1 (pages 22-23) shows the conservation status of ginseng in the
United States according to NatureServe (2001). Based on the conservation
status ranking system developed by NatureServe, none of the States that
currently allow the harvest of wild ginseng received a rating of secure
(S5), which would indicate that wild populations of the species are
stable (typically more than 100 occurrences, and more than 10,000
individuals). Table 1 also shows the estimated number of populations of
ginseng, the percentage of counties from which ginseng is exported, and
the estimated number of plants harvested in 2001 (Kauffman 2003).
4. The National Park Service (NPS) prohibits the harvest of native
plants from national parks. However, poaching of ginseng continues to
occur and takes place not only in major national parks (such as Great
Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee-North Carolina; Mammoth Cave
National Park, Kentucky; and Shenandoah National Park, Virginia), but
also in smaller ones (such as Blue Ridge Parkway, North Carolina and
Virginia; Little River Canyon National Preserve, Alabama).
5. Between 1991 and 2001, 11,654 pounds of illegally harvested ginseng
roots (an estimated 3,496,200 plants) were seized in the GSMNP, which
encompasses 800 square miles (512,000 acres) within the core of the
species’ range (J. Rock, GSMNP, pers. comm.). In 2002, at Mammoth Cave
National Park (MCNP), a poacher was apprehended with 19 pounds of green
ginseng roots (an estimated 5,700 plants) (M. DePoy, MCNP, pers. comm.).
(An average of 300 roots per pound at a one-to-one ratio of root to plant).
6. To combat the illegal harvest of ginseng in national parks, the NPS
has implemented several preventive strategies, such as permanently
marking ginseng roots which cause the roots to be unacceptable for sale.
7. Ginseng poaching is not restricted to Federal and State lands; it
also affects private land owners (Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis, Missouri,
February 19-21, 2003).
8. Historical harvest records indicate that, from 1821 to 1899, an
average of 381,000 pounds of wild ginseng root were exported annually
from the United States (Anderson 1986). Exports for 1992-2001 have
averaged 104,261 pounds (an estimated 31,278,300 plants) annually.
Although the total weight of exported ginseng has declined, it is
believed to represent a greater number of individual plants than in the
1800s because smaller plants (roots) are being harvested (Haber 1990).
This is due to a general decline in the number of older plants available
for harvest.
9. In the late 1970s, ginseng roots of wild origin accounted for
approximately 30% of the roots exported from North America, primarily to
Asian markets. Today, only 3.5% of ginseng exports are wild-harvested
roots. To meet the international demand for ginseng, the difference is
derived from cultivated plants (Schippman 2001). Nevertheless, the
demand for wild ginseng roots remains high due to the preference by
Asian consumers for wild roots over cultivated ones.
10. With the exception of Maryland, all of the States that currently
have a wild ginseng export program have USFS National Forest lands
within their State boundaries (Figure 2, page 29).
11. Due to concerns of over-harvest and the decline of ginseng on USFS
lands in the Eastern Region (R-9), in 1999 the Region designated ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius) as a Regional Forester Sensitive Species on the
following National Forests (NF): Shawnee NF, Illinois; Hoosier NF,
Indiana; White Mountain NF, Maine and New Hampshire; Ottawa and Huron
Manistee NF, Michigan; Green Mountain NF, Vermont; and
Chequamegon/Nicolet NF, Wisconsin (Figure 2, page 29)
(URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/america ginseng.pdf.
Accessed June 17, 2003). Ginseng cannot be harvested on these NFs except
as provided for in tribal agreements or research collection permits
(URL: http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/america ginseng.pdf.
Accessed June 17, 2003).
12. The purpose of designating species as a USFS Regional Forester
Sensitive Species is to protect rare species and their habitats before
there is a need to list species as “threatened” or “endangered” under
the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Species designated as Sensitive Species
are vulnerable due to low populations and other risk factors. By
designating ginseng as a Sensitive Species, USFS policy mandates the
completion of a conservation assessment of the species. The conservation
assessment will provide a review of known information regarding the
species’ distribution, habitat, ecology, and population biology. Upon
completion, the USFS will develop a conservation strategy for ginseng on
NFs in the Eastern Region. Once a conservation strategy is developed,
the USFS may choose to work with cooperating agencies or organizations
to draft a formal conservation agreement that will identify how the
multiple entities can work together to conserve the species
(URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/ca-overview/index.htm.
Accessed June 17, 2003). The completion date for the conservation
assessment is scheduled for 2004 (G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.).
13. Only two NFs within the Eastern Region continue to issue harvest
permits for ginseng roots: Monongahela NF (West Virginia) and Wayne NF
(Ohio). In 2002, the Monongahela NF issued 21 permits (E. Ash, USFS,
pers. comm.). The Wayne NF issued 180 permits in 2002, compared to113
permits issued in 2001 (E. Larson, USFS, pers. comm.).
14.Field studies conducted on the Monongahela NF suggest that ginseng
has been reduced in some locations to populations of one to a few dozen
individuals (Van der Voort 1998).
15. Allegheny NF (Pennsylvania) and Mark Twain NF (Missouri) in the
Eastern Region do not have a formal policy on the issuance of ginseng
harvest permits (USFS personnel, pers. comm.). However, the issuance of
such permits is discouraged on these two NFs. The Chippewa NF and
Superior NF (Minnesota), Finger Lakes NF (New York), and Hiawatha NF
(Wisconsin) are within the range of ginseng; however, the species is not
currently known to be present within the boundaries of these National
Forests
(URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/rfss_plants_083002.pdf.
Accessed June 17, 2003).
16. The majority of the USFS Southern Region (R-8) NFs (except NFs in
Texas, Florida, and Puerto Rico) are within the range of ginseng (Figure
2, page 29). Results from field monitoring of ginseng in the Southern
Region NFs indicated viability concerns with the continued harvest of
ginseng (USFS 2000). According to FS personnel, ginseng on NF lands in
the Southern Region has been completely extirpated from one-third of its
historic sites, and the remaining ginseng patches are smaller and
composed of younger individuals. USFS field data indicated that 95% of
the ginseng populations on the NFs in the Southern Region had
significant persistence risks (USFS 2000a) and are heading toward
conditions in which ginseng will no longer be economically or
ecologically viable (Sutter and Kauffman 2000).
17. In 2000, the Southern Region considered a temporary moratorium on
the issuance of harvest permits for ginseng due to concerns that
collection rates may be exceeding sustainable levels. However, the
moratorium was not imposed.
18. However, within the USFS Southern Region, several individual NFs
have implemented harvest restrictions. In 2000, the Ozark-St. Francis
and the Ouachita NFs in Arkansas established a 5-year moratorium on the
harvest of ginseng to prevent further decline in ginseng abundance and
until monitoring data indicate that wild populations can sustain
harvesting (URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/oonf/ozark/new/ginseng-letter.html.
Accessed June 17, 2003).
19.Table 2 (page 24) shows the number of permits issued on NFs in the
Southern Region from 1999 to 2002 (F. Huber, C. Wentworth, D. Taylor, M.
Pistrang, G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.). Harvest permits are issued
for either one or two pounds each, and are counted as wet (green) or dry
root weight, depending on the particular NF. The high number of permits
(787) issued in 2001 on the Nantahala and Pisgah NFs in North Carolina
may have been a result of double-counting the number of permits issued
for that year. The actual number is most likely similar to the number of
permits (600) issued in 2000 (G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.).
20. To curtail the illegal poaching of ginseng in wilderness areas and
other protected areas, the USFS in North Carolina has implemented a
marking program similar to that used by the NPS (G. Kauffman, USFS,
pers. comm.).
21. In 1979, eight permanent plots (50 x 50 meters) were established on
NF lands in the Southern Region to monitor ginseng. The plots were
surveyed at various times throughout 1979-1983. The eight plots were
re-visited in 1999 and 2000; however, no individuals were located in
three of the plots. Population data from the five plots showed a
statistically significant declined in the mean population size, from
29.8 plants/plot in 1979 to 5.7 plants/plot in 1999. Results from field
surveys in 2000, indicated that 29% of the populations were extirpated,
and that within 10 years 43% of the populations would not be viable.
22. Our analysis of the harvest reports submitted by the States for the
2000 and 2001 harvest seasons identified a strong relationship between
State counties and NFs lands in the Southern Region and the harvest
amounts reported. Most of the ginseng harvested in several States is
reported from counties that have large percentages of USFS lands. For
example, based on data from the 2000 and 2001 harvest reports from North
Carolina, we found that 18 counties with USFS lands accounted for 92%
and 93%, respectively, of the total amount of wild ginseng harvested in
the State in these years. In Virginia, the percentages of wild ginseng
originating from 30 counties with USFS lands are 64% and 75% for the
2000 and 2001 harvest seasons, respectively; and in Georgia, the
percentages are 65% and 89% for the 2000 and 2001 harvest seasons,
respectively. Figure 3 (page 30) shows ginseng amounts harvested by
State counties in 1999 and 2000 (data provided by G. Kauffman, USFS).
23.As reported in our last four findings (1999-2002) for the export of
ginseng, the quantity of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng has
increased in the last decade. However, most States do not report
wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng separately from “wild,” thereby
potentially affecting the harvest trend data for those States. The
effects of reporting these quantities together may indicate erroneously
that wild populations within a particular State have remained stable or
have increased, allowing a greater harvest.
24. It is possible that the amount of truly wild ginseng being harvested
has decreased, potentially due to a host of factors (decrease in
abundance, increase in herbivory, habitat destruction), whereas the
amount of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng have increased, thus
compensating for and masking a decline in truly wild ginseng.
25.We are also concerned that small-size ginseng roots (less than 5
years old) are being harvested from the wild to be replanted in other
areas, or sold domestically as “green” roots. The removal of these young
plants from wild populations reduces the number of seeds produced and,
therefore, future recruitment of individuals into those wild populations.
New Information and Research
1. The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), the ginseng export States,
industry, academic researchers, and others are working together to
improve our understanding and knowledge of wild ginseng, and to better
assess the impact of harvest on wild ginseng populations. To this end,
the Service held a workshop with scientific researchers, the States,
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), and the USFS during
February 19-21, 2003, in St. Louis, Missouri. Current and ongoing
research presented at the workshop is included in this finding.
2. In 2003, we initiated a research study, to be conducted by the U.S.
Geological Survey/Biological Resources Division (USGS/BRD) and with
assistance from the USFS, to develop a predictive habitat modeling
database for ginseng within the core range of ginseng in the southern
Appalachians. Completion of this project is expected in the fall of
2004. The second phase of the project will be to verify and inventory
identified habitat locations for ginseng.
3. In 2001, Dr. McGraw (2003) established 27 long-term monitoring plots
for ginseng in Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia, with one
additional site in Indiana. Results from two field seasons (2001 and
2002) show that many of the populations are small, with only a few
individuals, and that older three- and four-pronged plants were absent
from most of the 27 populations (Table 3, page 24). Nine populations in
Kentucky (the State with the largest amount of ginseng harvested) were
found to be expanding slightly, whereas the 12 populations in West
Virginia (the State with the second largest annual harvest) were
declining slightly. Although these rates are only based on two season’s
worth of data, Dr. McGraw speculated that the differences between the
populations in the two States may be due to higher rates of seed
production for ginseng in Kentucky (although lower germination rates),
compared to populations in West Virginia. The West Virginia populations
may have been also affected by deer browse (McGraw 2003).
4. Jones et al. (2003) analyzed 25 years of field data, collected from
115 one-acre ginseng sites throughout the State of Kentucky, to
determine if the ginseng populations had increased, remained stable, or
decreased at these sites. Using correlation analysis, Dr. Jones
determined that 39 sites (34%) had a high positive correlation
coefficient, indicating an increase of populations over time, whereas 16
sites (14%) showed populations were declining over time. Analysis of the
remaining 60 sites indicated that populations have remained relatively
stable (slightly positive or slightly negative) over time.
5. The Missouri Department of Natural Resources monitored an average of
370 ginseng plants for 6 years (Drees 2003). A significant finding from
the field study was that, when the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus
virginianus) population peaked, at least 41% of all ginseng reproduction
was aborted due to deer herbivory (Drees 2003). Repeated grazing of
ginseng by deer resulted in a substantial decline in the percentage of
mature plants that produce inflorescences. However, when the deer
population was reduced, the reproductive success of ginseng improved.
The author concluded that repeated deer browse can stress ginseng
populations and result in a substantial decline in the percentage of
mature plants that produce fruit (Drees 2003).
6. Based on field monitoring data, the maturity of ginseng fruit at the
time of root harvest can significantly affect seed viability and
germination (McGraw 2003). Ginseng monitoring in West Virginia revealed
that 75% of ginseng fruits were still green on August 15, the start of
the harvest season in that State. The field data also showed that the
harvest of ginseng roots prior to full fruit ripening (red fruit) can
drive a population’s growth rate below an equilibrium value of 1.00
(declining population) (McGraw 2003).
7. Furthermore, the depth at which ginseng seeds are planted directly
affects the germination of seed. Based on field studies the lowest seed
germination was recorded at 0 cm (on the soil surface) and the largest
amount of germination was at a depth of 2.5 cm (1 inch), with rates
decreasing thereafter (McGraw 2003a).
8. In 2004, the results of a demographic study of six ginseng
populations (510 plants total) in the GSMNP will be published in a
scientific journal (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.). The
study consisted of monitoring two populations for 4 years (1998-2001)
and four populations for 3 years (1999-2001). According Dr. Gagnon, a
significant finding of the study was that large plant dormancy in
ginseng was confirmed for the first time. Within the six populations, an
average of 8% of the plants were dormant in any year. Most plants
emerged after 1 year (with decrease in size); however, 12% remained
dormant for 2 years. Overall, seed production was very low, declining
from 1998 to 2000, and averaged 10 seeds per four-pronged plant.
Population growth rates calculated from matrices average 0.997
(declining populations). Stochastic projections indicated that these
populations are barely maintaining themselves and can not tolerate any
harvesting. According to Dr. Gagnon, large plant dormancy, low seed
production, and low population growth rates appear to be related to
droughts during the third and fourth years of the study (D. Gagnon,
University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
9. The genetic diversity of 21 ginseng populations (1,317 plants)
consisting of 8 protected sites and 13 unprotected sites in four states
(Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, and West Virginia) was analyzed
(Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003). The genetic diversity of 21 ginseng
populations (1,317 plants) consisting of 8 protected sites and 13
unprotected sites in four states (Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, and
West Virginia) was analyzed (Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003). The
researchers found significantly greater genetic diversity (higher
heterozygosity), greater portion of older plants, and larger stage-class
of individuals within protected populations than within populations in
which harvesting had occurred. Genetic structure was significantly
greater among unprotected populations (GST= 0.491) than among protected
populations (GST= 0.167). According to the researchers, the differences
in the level and distribution of genetic diversity in these populations
indicate that harvesting reduces genetic diversity and may have
significant evolutionary implications for this species (Cruse-Sanders
and Hamrick 2003).
Alternative ginseng growing methods
Although this finding primarily covers truly wild ginseng, it also
includes ginseng derived from other growing methods used to produce
harvestable roots for export. Unfortunately, consistent terminology for
different growing methods used are not universally applied, and not all
States track these methods or separately report ginseng harvested from
such methods (e.g., wild-simulated and woods-grown are often included in
State harvest data sheets as wild). We are therefore unable to
categorically determine that any of these alternative methods would
qualify as artificial propagation according to the CITES definition.
Without clarification from individual States, we currently consider
ginseng from these alternative growing methods to be wild when they are
from the States covered by this finding, although we could take a
different approach in the future if we can resolve the inconsistencies
involved in the application of these terms.
The two most popular growing methods used for ginseng are
“wild-simulated” and “woods-grown.” We have reviewed available
information on these methods from various sources, including State
Cooperative Extension programs, universities, non-profit organizations,
and public literature. Although we recognized that there may be
variation in the application of these methods, the following information
is a brief summary of these two alternative growing methods.
Wild-simulated ginseng
1. Much of the ginseng harvested as wild-simulated comes from natural
woods in the Appalachian-Allegheny Mountains in parts of Kentucky, New
York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and West Virginia, and a lesser amount
from the Ozark Plateau of Arkansas and Missouri (URL:
http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/ginsgold.html Accessed January 22, 2003).
2. Wild-simulated ginseng is grown in a natural forest environment with
70%-80% shade, and with minimal site preparation and maintenance (URL:
http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html Accessed
January 22, 2003). Although non-stratified ginseng seed can be planted,
most references recommend planting stratified seed in the fall, after
trees drop their leaves (URL:
http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html Accessed
January 22, 2003). Typically, the ground layer of mulch is pulled back
by hand or raked back; the seed is then broadcasted, and covered with
soil and mulch (Beyfuss 1999). Small ginseng transplant roots have also
been reported to be planted under wild-simulated production method.
3. The ginseng plants are usually left to grow naturally, with
occasional vegetation control as necessary (Beyfuss 1999). Pesticides
and fertilizers are applied at the owner’s discretion (Beyfuss 1999).
4. Wild-simulated ginseng grown from seed is typically harvested at 6-15
years of age (average 9-12 years) (URL:
http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/;
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf Accessed
June 23, 2003). In general, harvested roots closely approximate the
appearance of truly wild ginseng roots, such as in color, texture, and
shape of root (URL:http://www.unl.edu/nac/afnotes/ff-4/index.html ;
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf Accessed
January 22, 2003).
Woods-grown ginseng
1. Woods-grown or “woods-cultivated” ginseng often refers to ginseng
grown under a forest canopy with a range in the amount of human
intervention. Typically, large continuous forested areas that provide
70%-80% natural shade are selected for woods-grown ginseng (Scott et al.
1995; Beyfuss 1999; URL:
http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/ ;
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf ;
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html
Accessed January 22, 2003).
2. Much of the literature available on cultivation of woods-grown
ginseng recommend using intensive management techniques, as described
below (Scott et al. 1995; Beyfuss 1999; URL:
http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/ ;
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html
Accessed January 22, 2003).
3. Site preparation for woods-grown ginseng begins with clearing the
understory vegetation and undesirable trees, shrubs, and large rocks
(Scott et al. 1995; Beyfuss 1999; URL:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html ;
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf ;
http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/factsheets/ginseng.pdf Accessed January
22, 2003). The soil is tilled usually 4-8 inches either by a rototiller
or by hand (Beyfuss 1999;
http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/factsheets/ginseng.pdf Accessed January
22, 2003). Depending on the location, soil amendments such as limestone,
gypsum, and chemical or organic fertilizers may be added to the soil as
necessary (Davis 1997; Beyfuss 1999; Das et al. 2001;
URL:http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html Accessed
January 22, 2003).
4. Although non-stratified ginseng seed can be planted, most references
recommend planting stratified seed in the late summer or fall. A typical
application rate is 40-50 pounds per acre (Scott et al. 1995; Beyfuss
1999). There are approximately 7,000 to 8,000 ginseng seeds per pound
(Beyfuss 1999; URL:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html ;
Accessed June 23, 2003). To ensure a more uniform stand of plants and to
reduce the time from planting to harvest of roots, some references
recommend planting cultivated seedlings or cultivated transplant roots
(rootlets) (Davis 1997; Beyfuss 1999; Das et al. 2001).
5. Typically, ginseng seed is planted in beds, which are routinely
manually cleaned of competing vegetation (URL:
http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html Accessed
January 22, 2003). Pesticides are applied for insect, disease, and
rodent control, as necessary (Beyfuss 1999).
6. Typically, woods-grown ginseng from seed requires 6-8 years to obtain
a size suitable for harvesting (Scott et al. 1995; Davis 1997; Beyfuss
1999; URL:http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf
Accessed June 23, 2003). A general “rule of thumb” is that from 100 to
300 dried ginseng roots yield one dried pound of roots (Beyfuss 1999).
New Information on State Regulation of Harvest
1. As of April 1, 2003, the State of North Carolina will require
wild-collected ginseng plants to be at least 5 years old and have three
prongs (leaves) or, in the absence of leaves, have at least four
discernible bud scars plus a bud on the rhizome. The new State
regulation requires harvesters to plant the seeds of harvested plants
within 100 feet of where ginseng is located in the wild (Rules on
Ginseng Collection and Trade in North Carolina. NC Administration Code
Title 2 48F. As submitted to DMA in 2003).
2. The Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR) will implement the
following changes in their State regulations for the 2003 ginseng
harvest season: the harvest season will start September 1 (instead of
August 15) and no harvest will be allowed on State lands (S. Zook, ODNR,
pers. comm.).
3. The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
(PDCNR) is in the process of amending their current ginseng harvest
season start date of August 1 to September 1. According to PDCNR, the
new harvest start date should be in effect for the 2004 harvest season
(C. Rohrbach, PDCNR, pers. comm.).
Fish and Wildlife Service outreach efforts in 2003
1. We and the Division of Management Authority held a workshop with
State ginseng program representatives, and other Federal agencies (USFS
and APHIS), February 19-21, 2003, in St. Louis, Missouri. Over the
course of 3 days, new and ongoing ginseng research was presented by
State, Federal, and university researchers; the status, management, and
conservation of the species was discussed; and general recommendations
were developed by the group. Table 4 (page 25) lists the management
issues and general recommendations, and Table 5 (page 26) contains the
trade and export issues and general recommendations from the workshop.
2. We also held a public meeting on May 21, 2003, in Lexington,
Kentucky. The purpose of the public meeting was to discuss U.S.
obligations under CITES related to the export of ginseng, and to obtain
new information on the biological and trade status of the species. To
notify the public of the meeting we published a Federal Register notice
(Vol. 68, No. 78) on April 23, 2003. All State programs were notified in
advance of the meeting, and were encouraged to notify representatives of
the ginseng industry in their States.
3. Attendees included growers, buyers and dealers, and exporters of
ginseng from 12 States. In addition, representatives from State and
other Federal agencies (USFS, and NPS) also participated. Among the
ginseng growers and trade representatives that attended the meeting, a
general consensus was voiced that the current age requirement (roots
must be 5 years of age or older) for the export of ginseng may not be
sufficient to ensure the long-term survival of the species. There was
also acknowledgement amongst the group that many State harvest seasons
start too early, before ginseng fruit is mature, and should be changed
to when the fruit is mature (red). Additionally, there was a general
recommendation that ginseng harvesters need to be better informed of
when and how much to harvest, the correct planting depth for ginseng
seeds, and the potential negative impacts from planting cultivated
ginseng seeds in the wild, such as genetic erosion and introduction of
diseases. Several participants recommended that the ginseng industry
should play a greater role in the conservation and sustainable harvest
of ginseng.
4. DSA met with USFS national resource program directors to discuss
ginseng management, harvest, and conservation issues on National Forest
lands.
Conclusions
1. There is a substantial amount of scientific literature on the concept
of minimum viable population size of plant species needed to buffer the
effects of various types of stochastic risk (demographic, genetic,
environmental, habitat loss, etc.). Several researchers have suggested a
minimum viable population size range for ginseng to be 172 individuals
in the most northern portion of the species’ range (Canada) and up to
500 individuals in the southern portion of its range (GSMNP) (Nantel et
al. 1996; D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
2. Research has shown that harvesting of ginseng reduces population size
and, as with most species, small population size reduces genetic
diversity, which over time reduces the species’ ability to adapt to
changing or variable environments (Hackney and McGraw 2000; Anderson
2002; Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003). Ginseng’s life history traits
increase ginseng’s vulnerability to stochastic risk: small populations,
relative long pre-reproductive period (reproductive plants are at least
4 years), low fecundity and high seed mortality, and short-distance seed
dispersal (seed stays within 2-3 meters of parent plant) (Carpenter and
Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Anderson et
al. 1984; Schlessman 1985; Charron and Gagnon 1991; Anderson et al.
1993; Van der Voot 1998; Dunwiddie and Anderson 1999; Anderson 2002).
3. Regardless of the historical abundance of ginseng, populations have
dramatically declined in the last century, and in some locations
populations have been reduced to a few dozen individuals (Van der Voot
1998). Field surveys of ginseng throughout portions of its range
(Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia) have found that
population sizes that would indicate a minimum viable population size of
172-500 individuals are rarely encountered (Gagnon 1999; Drees 2003;
Jones et al. 2003; Kauffman 2003; McGraw 2003).
4. In Canada, the species is listed as “endangered”; in Maine, it is
listed as “endangered,” and it is listed as “threatened” in Michigan.
Due to scarcity of the species, several other States within its range
prohibit or discourage the wild-collection of ginseng (Connecticut,
Delaware, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Rhode Island). National Forests
in the States of Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Michigan, New Hampshire,
Vermont, and Wisconsin have prohibited the issuance of harvest permits
and have included the species on the USFS Regional Foresters Sensitive
Species list. Several of the National Forests in the Southern Region
have also restricted or reduced the number of harvest permits issued.
5. We are concerned that the amount of ginseng harvested may exceed the
amount authorized under USFS collection permits. The USFS collection
permits are limited to 1-2 pounds per permit and follow State harvest
rules and regulations (harvest season, age of plants, and planting of
seeds). However, once harvest permits are issued by a NF, there is
little oversight or enforcement of these harvest restrictions.
Furthermore, many State harvest seasons start before ginseng fruit is
mature, thereby reducing the number of new recruits. Discussions with
USFS botanists support our suspicion that the amount of wild ginseng
harvested from NF lands most likely exceeds the 1-2 pounds allowed by
the USFS. Additionally, there are concerns that ginseng poaching is
occurring on USFS lands during and outside of State harvest seasons, and
that State harvest season start before ginseng fruit is mature.
6. Harvest is prohibited on NPS lands; however, ginseng continues to be
illegally poached from NPS (e.g., MCNP, GSMNP).
7.With the exception of six States (Alabama, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota,
Pennsylvania, Virginia), all of the other States with a wild ginseng
export program do not allow harvest on State lands.
8. Most States continue to report that they do not have the resources
(monetary, personnel, etc.) to survey State lands to assess the status
of the species (e.g., abundance, distribution) within their respective
States.
9. We are concerned that the Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee,
Virginia, and West Virginia harvest seasons start in August before
ginseng fruit is fully mature (red), which decreases future offspring
and recruitment, even if seeds from harvested plants are planted as
required by these States (except Virginia) (Table 6, page 27). As
previously stated in this finding, this will affect the long-term
survival of the species.
10.We are concerned that ginseng harvesters may not be planting seed at
the recommended depth of 1 inch in the soil.
11. Recent genetic research on ginseng, as well as research discussed in
this finding, has identified several factors, such as planting of
non-local or commercial seed into natural woodlands and the effects of
over-harvest of ginseng populations, which indicate that the species’
long-term genetic diversity and survival may be affected by such actions.
12. In 1999, under a study funded by DSA, Dr. Gagnon analyzed the
long-term sustainability of ginseng harvested from the wild and reported
that the wild-collection of ginseng is generally thought to be
biologically unsustainable and offers no incentive for species or
habitat conservation (Gagnon 1999).
13. In a recent IUCN assessment of the conservation and sustainability
of ginseng, the paper concluded that the general consensus points to a
reduction and continuing decline of ginseng populations, and the harvest
of smaller wild roots than in previous years (Rosser and Haywood 2002).
The study concluded that the likelihood that ginseng exports are
sustainable may not be high and the system may require more oversight
(Rosser and Haywood 2002).
14.Although the Service does not regulate harvest of ginseng, only the
export, we continue to work with the States and other Federal agencies
(USFS, NPS) that are responsible for managing the species and its
habitat on their lands, and to ensure the long-term viability of the
species.
15.Currently, and throughout the past several years, we have:
Initiated in 2003 with the USGS/BRD, the development of a habitat
modeling database. The database will be used to estimate the potential
distribution of ginseng based on habitat availability. Phase two of the
project will be to verify and inventory probable ginseng locations.
Sponsored two ginseng workshops (Missouri, 2003, and Kentucky, 2000) and
one public meeting (Kentucky, 2003).
Established a ginseng listserve for State ginseng coordinators and
Federal agencies to share ginseng information and research.
Discussed with USFS and NPS personnel our concerns about the status of
ginseng on National Forest and National Park Service lands.
Funded field inventories and monitor studies, and status assessment of
ginseng. We have, and continue to share the results of these studies
with Federal and State agencies, and the public.
In 1999, we implemented a minimum-age requirement (5 years or older) for
the export of wild ginseng roots.
16. Our non-detriment finding is based on the best available biological
information on the status of the species. We have assessed the status of
ginseng by direct means, such as ongoing research studies, field
inventories, population assessments, and scientific literature, and
through indirect means, such as monitoring State harvest levels, reports
by other Federal agencies of ginseng poaching on their lands, and State
and Federal conservation and protection efforts.
17. However, we continue to believe that an increasing amount of ginseng
exported as “wild” may actually be wild-simulated or woods-grown.
Although ginseng harvested from these growing methods is not likely to
be detrimental to truly wild ginseng, these amounts may inflate the
harvest data for truly wild ginseng. This is compounded by the fact that
these roots are often indistinguishable through visual inspection from
truly wild ginseng roots.
18. Furthermore, many of the exporting States have Cooperative Extension
programs that provide public educational information on growing
wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng (Arkansas, Indiana, Kentucky,
Minnesota, Missouri, North Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia,
and West Virginia). We are concerned that the State regulatory agencies
responsible for overseeing the ginseng program in their respective State
may not be communicating with their State Cooperative Extension office
about the use and extent of alternative growing methods used for ginseng
in their State.
19. We have previously found that the export of wild ginseng from all of
the States covered by this finding to be not detrimental to the survival
of the species based on the regulation of wild ginseng harvest by those
States.
20. Although we remain concerned about the impact of international trade
on this species, we note that some improvements have occurred in the
regulation of ginseng, and we have obtained information to show that,
although harvest has adversely affected some ginseng populations, that
is not necessarily the case. There is greater attention being directed
toward the development of sustainable-harvest strategies for the
species. State and Federal agencies are improving coordination on
research, management, and regulation of harvest and enforcement, and
increasing effort has been and will be directed toward outreach and
education of the public on sustainable harvest methods and other
activities to assist in the conservation of the species. Therefore, we
have concluded that the exports of wild ginseng harvested in 2003 and
2004 will not be detrimental to the survival of the species, provided
the following CONDITION is met:
Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) roots harvested in 2003 and 2004 and
certified by the States as wild, may be exported provided that the roots
are 5 years of age or older. (Age of ginseng roots at the time of
harvest can be determined by counting the number of bud-scale scars on
the rhizome. A single scar is produced after abscission of the plants’
aerial stem each year.)
Future Actions
In preparation for making our non-detriment finding on exports of
ginseng in 2005, we will be assessing whether further progress has been
made by Federal and State agencies involved in ginseng monitoring,
conservation, and harvest regulation. We will seek up-to-date
information on the status of the species, including any the results of
any field surveys and additional protections afforded to it, and will
discuss and recommend, as appropriate, specific additional measures that
may contribute to the conservation of the species and sustainable
harvest of ginseng for export.
We will also evaluate the following information for our finding in 2005:
1. Two reports: the long-term monitoring results of ginseng in the GSMNP
and the USFS Conservation Assessment of ginseng. Upon completion of the
USFS Conservation Assessment of ginseng, we will consult with the USFS
to determine what effect their finding may have on the export of ginseng.
2. NatureServe will conduct a general re-assessment of the global
(range-wide) status of ginseng in 2003-2004 (L. Morse, NatureServe,
pers. comm.).
3. We will work with Federal, State, and private-sector partners to
investigate other means for expanding efforts to monitor the status of
ginseng in the wild and ensure that harvest levels are sustainable for
both the short and long term.
4. To prevent the harvest of pre-reproductive ginseng plants and to
ensure the long-term survival of ginseng in the wild, we will recommend
that Illinois, the only State without a minimum-age or -size requirement
for harvest, implement one that is consistent with the minimum-age
requirement for export. We will also recommend that the States of
Illinois and Virginia require harvesters to plant the seeds of harvested
ginseng plants.
5. We will consult with Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee,
Virginia, and West Virginia to encourage these States to revise their
ginseng harvest season start dates to coincide with when ginseng fruits
are actually known to be mature (red) in these States.
6. We will examine the possibility of holding additional public meetings
and educational outreach workshops with State agencies. We will target
outreach efforts to harvesters and dealers to promote good harvest
practices.
7. We will also explore mechanisms to increase communication,
cooperation, and coordination with States at a bioregional level.
8. To improve our analysis, we will continue to encourage all States to
report values for dry roots per pound in their annual harvest reports,
so that we can continue to evaluate these data as an indicator of the
impact of harvest on wild ginseng populations.
9. We will continue to discuss with the States the use of non-local or
“commercial” seed for replanting of ginseng. Although we support, in
principle, the concept of species’ restoration as a conservation
measure, we do not support the planting of “commercial” seed in native
woodlands. We are greatly concerned about the origin of ginseng seed for
restoration purposes and the impact of non-local ginseng seed on local
gene pools of wild populations of ginseng. Moreover, we are especially
concerned where the species is less common, particularly in those States
where it is listed as endangered or threatened (i.e., Maine and
Michigan), where random planting of non-local seed may have an even
greater adverse effect on ginseng populations.
10. We will consider and discuss with the States and Federal land
management agencies what other effective conservation measures can be
implemented to ensure the long-term survival of ginseng.
Table 1. NatureServe status rank, State listing, estimated number of
populations of ginseng, percent of counties with ginseng export,
estimated plants harvested in 2001.
State
Status rank1
State listing
Estimated populations based on status rank or tracked data
Percent of counties with ginseng2
Estimated plants harvested in 20013
Alabama
S4
none
101-1000
37%
164,000
Arkansas
S4
none
101-1000
44%
188,000
Connecticut
S3
Species of Special concern
21-200
100%
harvest is not known to occur
Delaware
S2
Species of Conservation
6-20
33%
harvest is not known to occur
District of Columbia
SH
historical
historical
100%
na
Georgia
S3
none
21-100
61%
158,000
Illinois
S3?
none
21-75
100%
832,000
Indiana
S3
none
21-100
99%
2,361,000
Iowa
S3
none
21-100
85%
95,000
Kansas
SR
none
not available
harvest is not known to occur
Kentucky
S4
none
101-1000
100%
5,120,000
Louisiana
S1
Rare
1-6
2%
harvest is not known to occur
Maine
S2
Endangered
29
56%
no wild harvest allowed
Maryland
S3
Watch List
21-100
63%
18,500
Massachusetts
S3
Listed
47
36%
harvest is not known to occur
Michigan
S2/S3
Threatened
21-100
42%
no wild harvest allowed
Minnesota
S3
Watch List
21-100
45%
275,000
Mississippi
S3
Watch List
21-100
37%
harvest is not known to occur
Missouri
S4
none
101-1000
63%
338,000
Nebraska
S1
Threatened
1-6
11%
harvest is not known to occur
New Hampshire
S2
Threatened
28 extant, 13 historical
90%
harvest is not known to occur
New Jersey
S2
Species of Concern
6-20
5%
harvest is not known to occur
New York
S4
none
not available
68%
108,000
North Carolina
S4
Watch List
101-1000
48%
2,478,000
Ohio
SR
none
not available
100%
1,158,000
Oklahoma
S1
Watch List
1-6
1%
harvest is not known to occur
Pennsylvania
S4
none
101-1000
99%
275,000
Rhode Island
S1
Endangered
6-20
20%
harvest is not known to occur
South Carolina
none
harvest is not known to occur
South Dakota
S1
Rare
1-6
6%
harvest is not known to occur
Tennessee
S3
Watch List
21-100
85%
2,927,000
Vermont
S2/S3
Watch List
15-50
93%
20,500
Virginia
S4
Watch List
101-1000
70%
1,028,000
West Virginia
S3/S4
none
20-500
99%
1,304,000
Wisconsin
S4
none
101-1000
79%
281,000
1 Explanation of NatureServe ranking system is the following. Critically
imperiled (S1): typically 5 or fewer occurrences, or fewer than 1,000
individuals. Imperiled (S2): typically 6 to 20 occurrences with few
remaining individuals (1,000 to 3,000). Vulnerable (S3): typically 21 to
100 occurrences, with 3,000 to 10,000 individuals. Apparently secure
(S4): typically 100 occurrences with more than 10,000 individuals; the
species is considered uncommon but not rare. SR indicates that reports
were received from the States, but without persuasive documentation to
assign a ranking.
2 Percent of State counties with ginseng (Kauffman 2003).
3. Estimates based on 2001 State harvest amounts and average number of
dry roots/pound.
Table 2. Permits issued on USFS National Forests in the Southern Region
from 1999 to 2002.
Southern Region National Forests
Permits issued in 2002
Permits issued in 2001
Permits issued in 2000
Permits issued in 1999
The George Washington and Jefferson NF in Virginia, West Virginia, and
Kentucky.
20
32
not available
not available
Chattahoochee NF in Georgia
8
11
not available
not available
Daniel Boone NF in Kentucky
56
22
not available
not available
Cherokee NF in Tennessee
not available
67.5
79
44
Nantahala and Pisgah NF in North Carolina
355
787
600
400
Table 3. McGraw (2003) monitoring results of 27 populations from two
field seasons (2001 and 2002).
State
Populations Monitored
Number of Individuals
Growth Rate
Indiana
1
145
0.98
Kentucky
9
1460
1.08
Virginia
5
382
0.98
West Virginia
12
1533
0.98
Pooled
27
3520
1.04
Table 4. Results of the FWS-State Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis, Missouri,
February 19-21, 2003.
Status and Management Issues
Recommendations
Monitoring - significant advances have made and were reported at the
workshop, but remains ongoing priority.
Continue to advance monitoring efforts; review and implement
low-intensity monitoring protocol; coordinate monitoring on a range-wide
level.
Addressing biological issues - significant new research presented, but
research gaps remain and new biological issues identified.
Undertake targeted research on issues, including: population dynamics
and viability analysis, impact of different management regimes, and
genetics and pollination biology.
Funding - acknowledgment among group members of the catalytic role of
FWS and other seed money (including state-level) in research, but
funding needs to continue and be expanded.
Identify funding sources; explore additional sources of funding at the
Federal and State levels, and within the industry and the private sector.
Communication - increased communication required among and between
Federal and State agencies, industry, and other non-governmental players.
Facilitate communication through Web site, listserve, and other
appropriate means.
Age- and size-based restrictions on export of wild ginseng - discussion
of whether there is a need for further restrictions, and if so, what
options might be.
Further evaluate approaches to controlling and monitoring ginseng
harvest and trade; considering different levels of the trade stream
(e.g., digger, dealer, export), ginseng characteristics that could be
monitored (e.g., prongs, roots/lb.) and authority at different levels of
government.
Law enforcement - increasing the profile and importance of law
enforcement in support of management efforts.
Educate, share information and engage law enforcement on the ginseng
issue and involve them in future meetings; develop outreach materials
aimed at this audience.
Table 5. Results of the FWS/State Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis Missouri,
February 19-21, 2003.
Trade and Export Issues
Recommendations
Reporting requirements - consider the burden imposed on States and
industry and the utility to the data required for CITES findings.
Continue to clarify, simplify and refine reporting requirements as
appropriate.
Production system categories – clarify the production system categories
and determine the utility of using them for export reports.
Further discussion within FWS and further input from stakeholders on
definitions, reporting, and ability to implement production system
categories.
Education and outreach - key to implementation of management and trade
measures.
Facilitate sharing of already available education and outreach materials
through improved communication mechanisms.
Regional coordination - agreement regarding the need for more direct
State to State interaction in addition to FWS mediated consultation;
discussion of the utility of identifying ginseng bioregions.
Explore mechanisms to increase inter-state, inter-agency (Federal)
communication, cooperation and coordination at bioregional level, while
maintaining FWS mediated consultation mechanisms; consider existing
groups/associations which might serve as a home for such efforts. The
group identified four possible regions for pilot efforts on information
sharing, consultation and coordination on management and law enforcement.1
Future of USDA/APHIS - discussion on how the transfer of some APHIS
personnel to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) will impact
inspection of ginseng exports.
Clarify future role of APHIS and DHS in ginseng inspections.
Law enforcement at the State level - significant examples of ginseng
enforcement highlighted at the meeting.
Raise profile of law enforcement efforts in future ginseng coordination
meetings.
1 (AL, GA, KY, MD, NC, PA, SC, TN, VA, WV), (New England States, VT, NJ,
NY, PA & MD), (AR, MO, OH), (IA, IL, IN, KY, MI, MN, OH, WI, WV)
Table 6. Current State ginseng regulations.
State
Harvest season
Require seeds to be planted at site
Minimum age (number of leaves/prongs) required for harvested plants
Alabama
Sept 1 - Dec 13
yes
3 prongs
Arkansas
Sept 1 - Dec 1
yes
5 years, 3 prongs
Georgia
Aug 15 - Dec 31
yes
3 prongs
Illinois
Last Saturday in August- Nov 1
encouraged
no requirement
Indiana
Sept 1 - Dec 31
yes
3 prongs, a flowering or fruiting stalk, or 4 internodes on root
Iowa
Sept 1- Oct 31
yes
3 prongs
Kentucky
Aug 15 - Dec 1
yes
5 years, 3 prongs
Maryland
Aug 20 - Dec 1
yes
5 years, 3 prongs
Minnesota
Sept 1 - Dec 31
yes
3 prongs
Missouri
Sept 1 - Dec 31
yes
3 prongs or plants with fruiting stems
New York
Sept 1 - Nov 30
yes
3 prongs
North Carolina
Sept 1 – April 1
yes
5 years, 3 prongs
Ohio
Sept 1 – Dec 31
yes
3 prongs
Pennsylvania
Aug 1 - Nov 30
For 2003 season;
Sept 1 - Nov 30
For 2004 season, and thereafter
yes
3 prongs
Tennessee
Aug 15 - Dec 31
yes
5 years, 3 prongs
Vermont
Aug 20 - Oct 10
yes
5 years, 3 prongs
Virginia
Aug 15 - Dec 31
no
3 prongs
West Virginia
Aug 15 - Nov 30
yes
3 prongs
Wisconsin
Sept 1 – Nov 1
yes
3 prongs and mature fruits
Figure 1. Map of American ginseng conservation status rank in the United
States and Canada (NatureServe 2000).
Figure 2. Map of American ginseng range in the United States, the States
that export wild ginseng, and USFS lands (Kauffman 2003).
Figure 3. American ginseng harvest data by county averaged for 1999 and
2000. Coloring of individual counties is delineated by white (no
harvest), grey (1-50 lbs), blue (51-100 lbs), green (101-200 lbs),
yellow (201-400 lbs), red-brown (401-1000 lbs), and pink (> 1000 lbs)
(Kauffman 2003).
*Literature Cited*
Anderson, A. W. 1986. Ginseng: America’s botanical drug connection to
the Orient. Economic Botany, 40:233-249.
Anderson, R. C., J. S. Fralish, J. Armstrong, and P. K. Benjamin. 1983.
The ecology and biology of /Panax quinquefolium/ L. (Araliaceae) in
Illinois. American Midland Naturalist, 129:357-372.
Anderson, R. C., J. S. Fralish, J. Armstrong, and P. K. Benjamin. 1984.
Biology of ginseng (/Panax quinquefolium/) in Illinois. Illinois
Department of Conservation, Division of Forest Resources and Natural
Heritage. Springfield, Illinois.
Anderson, R. C. 2002. Wild American ginseng. Native Plants Journal,
3:93-105.
Beyfuss, R. L. 1999. Agroforestry Notes 14. USDA Forest Service and USDA
Natural Resources Conservation Service.
Boehm, C. L., H. C. Harrison, G. Jung, and J. Nienhuis. 1999.
Organization of American and Asian ginseng germplasm using randomly
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Journal American Society
Horticulture Science 124:252-256.
Carlson, A. W. 1986. Ginseng: America’s botanical drug connection to the
Orient. Economic Botany, 40:233-249.
Carpenter, S. G. and G. Cottam. 1982. Growth and reproduction of
American Ginseng /Panax quinquefolius/ in Wisconsin, U.S.A. Canadian
Journal of Botany, 60:2692-2696.
Caswell, H. 1989. Matrix Population Models. Sinauer Associates,
Sunderland, Massachusetts.
Charron, D. and D. Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations
of /Panax quinquefolium/ (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology, 79:431-445.
COSEWIC 2001. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada.
Assessment and Update Status Report of the American ginseng (/Panax
quinquefolius/) in Canada Endangered 2001.
Cruse-Sanders, J. M. and J.L. Hamrick. 2003. Conservation of genetic
diversity in wild populations of /Panax quinquefolius/. Presented at the
USFWS Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis, Missouri.
Das, S., L. Shillington, and T. Hammett. 2001. Ginseng. Fact sheet No.
7. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Blacksburg,
Virginia.
Davis, J. M. 1997. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service
Bulletin: Ginseng a production guide for North Carolina. North Carolina
Cooperative Extension Service.
Drees, D. 2003. Insights into wild ginseng ecology in Missouri,
especially threats from deer. Presented at the USFWS Ginseng Workshop,
St. Louis, Missouri.
Dunwiddie, P. W. and J. E. Anderson. 1999. Germination and survival of
seed in wild populations of American ginseng (/Panax quinquefolium/ L.)
Draft manuscript.
Gagnon, D. 1999. An analysis of the sustainability of American ginseng
harvesting from the wild: The problem and possible solutions. Final
report to USFWS.
Gagnon, D. 2003. Monitoring results of wild American ginseng populations
in the Great Smoky MountainsNational Park . Manuscript abstract.
Groom, M. 1998. Allee effects limit population viability of an annual
plant. The American Naturalist 151:487-496.
Hackney, E. E. and J. B. McGraw. 2001. Experimental demonstration of an
Allee effect in American Ginseng. Conservation Biology, 15:129-136.
Haber. 1990. As cited in Rosser, A.R. and Haywood, M.J. (Compilers).
2002. Guidance for CITES Scientific Authorities: Checklist to assist in
making non-detriment findings for Appendix II exports. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 146 pp.
Hu, S. Y., L. Rudenberg, and P. D. Tredici. 1980. Studies of American
ginseng. Rhodora 82:627-636.
Jones, T., J. Wolf, and J. Snyder. 2003 Results of Field Monitoring Wild
Populations of American Ginseng in Kentucky. Presented at the USFWS
Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis, Missouri.
Kauffman, G. 2003. USFS Preliminary assessment of wild American ginseng.
Unpublished document.
Lande, R. 1987. Extinction Thresholds in Demographic Models of
Territorial Populations.
Oecologia 130:624-635.
Lewis, W. H. and V. E. Zenger. 1982. Population Dynamics of the American
Ginseng /Panax quinquefolius /(Araliaceae). American Journal of Botany,
69:483-1490.
Lewis, W. H. and V. E. Zenger. 1983. Breeding systems and fecundity in
the ginseng, /Panax quinquefolium/ (Araliaceae). American Journal of
Botany, 70:466-468.
Lewis, W. H. 1988. Regrowth of a Decimated Population of (/Panax
quinquefolium /in a Missouri Climax Forest. Rhodora, Journal of the New
England Botanical Club, 90:1-5.
Lockard, A. and A. Q. Swanson. 1998. A Digger’s Guide to Medicinal
Plants. American Botanicals. Eolia, Missouri.
McGraw, J. B. 2001. Evidence for decline in stature of ginseng plants
from herbarium specimens. Biological Conservation, 98:25-32.
McGraw, J. B. 2003. Evaluation of management options for wild American
ginseng populations based on demographic consequences. Final report to
USFWS.
McGraw, J. B. 2003a. Results of two years of field monitoring in 29
populations in four leading exporting states. Presented at the USFWS
Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis, Missouri.
Nantel, P., D. Gagnon, and A. Nautel. 1996. Population viability
analysis of American ginseng and wild leek harvested in stochastic
environments. Conservation Biology, 10(2):608-621.
NatureServe: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. 2001.
Version 1.4. Arlington, Virginia, USA. URL: http://www.natureserve.org/
(accessed June 2, 2003).
Proctor, R. 1980. Some aspects of the Canadian culture of ginseng
(/Panax quinquefolium/) particularly the growing environment Proceedings
of the third national ginseng symposium. Korean Ginseng Institute. p.
39-48 in, Seoul, Korean.
Proctor J. T. A. and W. G. Bailey. 1987. Ginseng: Industry, botany, and
culture. Horticulture Review. 9:187-236.
Radford, A., E., H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell. 1981. Manual of the
Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Rock, J., J. H. Hornbeck, J. Tietjen, and E. Choberka. 1999. Habitat
modeling and protection of American ginseng in Great Smoky Mountains
National Park.
Rosser, A.R. and M. J. Haywood (Compilers). 2002. Guidance for CITES
Scientific Authorities: Checklist to assist in making non-detriment
findings for Appendix II exports. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. 146 pp.
Schippman, U. 2001. CITES Medicinal Plants Significant Trade Study.
Schlessman, M. 1985. Flora biology of American ginseng (/Panax
quinquefolium/. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 112: 29-133.
Schluter, C. and Z. K. Punja. 2000. Floral biology and seed production
in cultivated North American ginseng (/Panax quinquefolius/). Journal of
the American Society for Horticultural Science, 125:567-575.
Scott, J. A., S. Rogers, D. Cooke, B. L. Fry. 1995. Woods-grown ginseng.
Center for Natural Resource and Community Development, West Virginia
University Extension Service.
Small, E. and P. M. Catling. 1999. Canadian Medicinal Crops. Natural
Research Council Research Press, Ottawa, Canada.
Sutter, R. D. and G. Kauffman. 2000. Ginseng’s fate: An assessment of
the ecological and socio-economic viability of ginseng on U.S. Forest
Service land in North Carolina. Unpublished draft report to the U.S.
Forest Service in North Carolina.
Van der Voot, M. 1998. An Inventory of Wild-harvested Plants in the
Otter Creek Wilderness Area of the Monongahela National Forest, West
Virginia. M.S. thesis. University of West Virginia, Morgantown, West
Virginia.
Van der Voot, M. as cited in J. McGraw. 2003. Evaluation of management
options for wild American ginseng populations based on demographic
consequences. Final report to FWS.
Veit, R. and M. Lewis. 1996. Dispersal, population growth, and the Allee
effect: Dynamics of the house finch invasion of eastern North America.
The American Naturalist 148:255-274.
U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region. 2000. Forest botanical products
maintaining sustainability and responding to socio-economic needs in the
southern Appalachians.
U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region. 2000a. Ginseng conservation needs
in southern region.
======================
Decline in stature of American Ginseng plants over two centuries.
MCGRAW, J.B.* West Virginia University Morgantown WV 26506 USA ^1
^snip--- Assuming herbarium specimens are representative of a consistent
portion of natural populations, either direct or indirect effects of
environmental change or human harvest could explain the rapid change in
ginseng
stature.http://abstracts.co.allenpress.com/pweb/esa2000/abstracts/JAM-3-81-5.html
-----------------------
Sonya PLoS Medicine
The open-access general medical journal from the Public Library of Science
Inaugural issue: Autumn 2004 Share your discoveries with the world.
http://www.plosmedicine.org
More information about the MPWG
mailing list