[PCA] Fwd: The Overstory #252: Conservation of tree species by botanic gardens

Wed Feb 20 11:15:13 CST 2013

Patricia S. De Angelis, Ph.D.
Botanist, Division of Scientific Authority-US Fish & Wildlife
Service-International Affairs
Chair, Medicinal Plant Working Group-Plant Conservation Alliance
4401 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 110
Arlington, VA  22203
703-358-1708 x1753
FAX: 703-358-2276

Promoting sustainable use and conservation of our native medicinal plants.
<www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal>

Follow International Affairs
> on Twitter  http://twitter.com/USFWSInternatl
> on Facebook   http://www.facebook.com/USFWS_InternationalAffairs

---------- Forwarded message ----------
From: The Overstory <overstory at agroforestry.net>
Date: Tue, Feb 19, 2013 at 10:02 AM
Subject: The Overstory #252: Conservation of tree species by botanic gardens
To: Patricia De Angelis <patricia_deangelis at fws.gov>

 Unsubscribe:

http://www.agroforestry.net/mail.cgi/u/overstory/patricia_deangelis/fws.gov/

 **   [image: The Overstory agroforestry ejournal] <http://index.html>
[image: Agroforestry.net] <http://www.agroforestry.net/index.html>
   Journal Home <http://index.html> | Previous Editions <http://osprev.html>|
Submissions <http://ovsubm.html> | Support <http://ovsupport.html> |
Current Projects <http://www.agroforestry.net/projects.html> |
Publications<http://www.agroforestry.net/pubs/index.html>| About
Us <http://www.agroforestry.net/aboutus.html> |
Links<http://www.agroforestry.net/links.html>
    **  **   **
*Protected remnant native dryland forest between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa,
Hawai'i. *
 **
------------------------------

*The Overstory #252
*

*Conservation of tree species by botanic gardens*

by Sara Oldfield and Adrian C. Newton

February 19, 2013
 **  ** ** ** ** **
          Importance of tree species

Trees are of exceptionally high ecological, socioeconomic and cultural
importance. As the principal biomass component of forest ecosystems, they
provide habitat for at least half of Earth's terrestrial biodiversity
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005), supporting 80% of amphibian, 75%
of bird and 68% of mammal species (Vié et al., 2009). Forest ecosystems
play a major role in the Earth's biogeochemical processes, and contain
about 50% of the world's terrestrial carbon stocks (FAO, 2010; Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005), highlighting their importance for moderating
human induced climate change. Trees and forest ecosystems provide a wide
range of benefits to people including production of timber, fuelwood and
fibre, and ecosystem services such as clean water, flood protection and
prevention of soil erosion from watersheds, as well as being of high
cultural and spiritual value (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; UNEP,
2009). The total value of such services has been estimated at US$4.7
trillion per year (Costanza et al., 1997). Some 1.6 billion people depend
directly on trees for their livelihoods (World Bank, 2004), and forest
industries contribute around $468 billion annually to the global economy
(FAO, 2011). Recent research has confirmed that high plant diversity is
needed to maintain provision of many ecosystem services (Isbell et al.,
2011).
In situ conservation

It is generally recognized that the most effective way to ensure the
long-term survival and evolution of tree species, and the ecological
communities of which they are a part, is to maintain viable populations in
their native environment (Kramer et al., 2011). This is referred to as in
situ conservation. Typically this is achieved through the designation and
management of some form of protected area, such as national parks,
wilderness areas and nature reserves (Newton, 2007). The extent of the
global network of protected areas continues to increase, with nearly
133,000 areas now designated, representing 12% of the Earth's terrestrial
surface (Butchart et al., 2010). Parties to the CBD recently committed
themselves to raise this figure to 17% by 2020. Despite the substantial
efforts being made to support the development and management of protected
areas, many are currently under threat from human activities such as urban
encroachment, infrastructural development, habitat conversion, illegal
harvesting and fire (Chape et al., 2005). Additional problems include
policy-related issues such as weak government institutions, conflicting
policies and resource tenure (Brandon et al., 1998). Because of such
problems, and the fact the coverage of protected area networks is not
complete, additional conservation approaches are also required.
Ecological restoration and reintroduction

The widespread environmental degradation that has occurred as a result of
human activities has led to a growing interest in ecological restoration.
This may be defined as the process of assisting the recovery of an
ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed (Bullock et al.,
2011). Ecological restoration has grown rapidly over the past few decades,
both in terms of a scientific discipline and in terms of environmental
management practice (Nellemann and Corcoran, 2010). Billions of dollars are
now being invested in restoration actions throughout the world (Goldstein
et al., 2008), supported by international policy commitments such as the
CBD. Many environmental organisations and community groups are actively
engaged in ecological restoration projects, but increasingly restoration
actions are also being undertaken by other organisations, including
governments and large companies.

A number of related terms are widely used. Rehabilitation emphasizes
ecosystem recovery, without including the re-establishment of some
pre-existing state as a management goal. Reclamation generally refers to
the environmental improvement of mined lands, and may incorporate soil
stabilization and aesthetic improvement (Newton, 2007). In this case there
may be less emphasis on restoring the original biodiversity present at a
degraded site, and greater emphasis on restoring productivity.
Afforestation and reforestation refer to the establishment of trees on a
site, in the former case where no trees existed before, and in the latter
case following deforestation (Mansourian, 2005).

It is also helpful to differentiate approaches involving the restoration of
entire ecosystems or ecological communities, from those that focus on
individual species. For example, conservation actions might focus on
restoring populations of an individual tree species that had been depleted
by timber harvesting. This could be achieved by artificial establishment of
individuals of the tree species concerned, for example by enrichment
planting, using planting stock derived from an ex situ population. If a
species has been extirpated from its original habitat, it may be a
candidate for reintroduction, which aims to re-establish new,
self-sustaining populations of a species in the locations where it occurred
previously. In recent years, reintroduction has increasingly been used as a
plant conservation tool (Falk et al., 1996). For example, one-fourth of the
plant species listed by the U.S. Endangered Species Act include
reintroduction as a component of their recovery plan (Kramer et al., 2011).
To be successful, reintroductions are dependent on the availability of
appropriate material either from other nearby adapted populations or from
suitable ex situ populations. Integrated conservation approaches will
therefore generally involve an element of reintroduction of an individual
species, as described in this manual. However, such reintroduction might
form part of a broader effort to restore an entire ecosystem, as also
explored further below.
Ex situ conservation

Ex situ conservation can be defined as the conservation and maintenance of
samples of living organisms outside their natural habitat, in the form of
whole plants, seed, pollen, vegetative propagules, tissue or cell cultures.
As many plant species are declining in abundance as a result of human
activities, and increasing numbers are becoming threatened with extinction,
there is an increasing need for ex situ conservation approaches. Botanic
gardens play a major role in the ex situ conservation of plants, but a
number of other organisations also maintain ex situ plant collections
including academic institutions, non-profit organizations, forest services
and other government agencies. Such collections can have value for
research, horticulture and education, but here the focus is on their
potential value for conservation.

The value of ex situ collections for conservation depends on three main
factors (from Kramer et al., 2011):

1) The type of plant material collected (including seeds, explants, and
living plants), which varies according to each species' reproductive
biology, seed characteristics, and/or adaptability to ex situ conditions.
For species with orthodox seeds (i.e. able to be dried and stored at low
temperatures for many years and still remain viable), ex situ collections
maintained as seed banks provide the greatest direct conservation value at
the lowest cost. For species with recalcitrant seeds (i.e. not able to be
dried and stored), tissue culture or cryopreservation collections can also
provide high direct conservation value but at a higher cost. Living plant
collections can also be of conservation value, depending on how they are
collected and maintained.

2) The protocols used for collecting; in general, welldocumented,
wild-collected ex situ collections that capture as much genetic variation
of the species as possible will have the greatest conservation value.
Botanic gardens often maintain collections of living plants represented by
one or more specimens per species, and from sources that are of wild or
non-wild (cultivated or unknown) origin. As only genetically diverse and
representative collections are appropriate to directly support in situ
conservation (e.g. through reintroduction), living collections represented
by only a few individuals will often be of limited value. However they can
nevertheless be of indirect conservation value, for example through
research, horticulture and education. It is also important to note that ex
situ collection efforts must be conducted carefully to ensure wild
populations are not placed at additional risk.

3) The subsequent maintenance of viable germplasm, which plays a critical
role in determining the ultimate conservation value of an ex situ
collection. Without proper curatorial management, the conservation value of
a collection, or the collection itself, can be entirely lost. Collections
with the most direct conservation application are genetically diverse and
representative of the species, and must be managed to ensure the material
is genetically sound and available for conservation activities over the
long-term. Many living collections today do not meet these standards owing
primarily to genetic issues such as having too little genetic diversity,
being of unknown provenance, or losing genetic diversity via drift or
adaptation to cultivation and hybridization. Management of ex situ
collections should also minimize the risk of loss due to random events or
natural disasters (such as staff changeover, theft, fire, disease, or other
catastrophic loss) by ensuring that collections are maintained at more than
one site. Additionally, curatorial oversight of living collections through
time is crucial to maintaining associations between collection data (e.g.
provenance) and specimens.
Integrated conservation approaches

In recent years, increasing emphasis has been placed on integrated
conservation approaches, in which in- and ex situ approaches are combined,
often together with reintroduction and ecological restoration. The
traditional idea that the role of botanic gardens was to hold cultivated
stocks of threatened species during a period of habitat degradation, in
what has been described as the "ark paradigm," is no longer believed to be
sufficient (Havens et al., 2006). Rather, for botanic gardens to be
effective with respect to conservation, the species banking approach must
be integrated with other conservation approaches focusing on habitats and
ecosystems (Havens et al., 2006).

The concept of integrated conservation of plant species is described by
Falk (1987), who notes the need for multiple conservation approaches to be
employed. Given the variety and complexity of threats to biodiversity, a
single approach, such as legal protection for a species or the acquisition
of land, is unlikely to be successful. According to Falk (1987), integrated
conservation is based on the assessment and synthesis of three sets of
information:

(i) determination of the biological entity of concern, including definition
of the target level of biological organization (such as species,
sub-species, variety or race);

(ii) identification of the threats to this entity; and

(iii) consideration of the full range of conservation resources that may be
brought to bear on the problem.

Integrated conservation approaches deliberately seek a broad base of
information about a conservation problem and employ a wide range of
complementary tools to accomplish a given objective (Falk, 1987). Such
approaches are typically highly site-specific and based strongly on local
context, in contrast to traditional approaches that are more general in
scope. Individual approaches can be of value at different scales; for
example, seed banks are well suited to conserve genetic diversity within a
population, but are incapable of conserving communities or ecosystems.
However, they may play a role as part of an overall integrated strategy to
address diversity at multiple levels of organization. Rather than being
viewed as separate and distinct, in and ex situ conservation approaches can
therefore be viewed as part of a spectrum of compatible, mutually
reinforcing methods (Falk, 1987). For example, Falk (1987) provides the
example of the successional management of a fire-adapted ecosystem, such as
a prairie or savanna, which may involve fencing, site preparation,
controlled burns, and reseeding with native species. Such a management
regime may differ from a reintroduction program only in terms of the number
of years during which a particular species is absent from the site, or from
ecological restoration only in terms of the number of species that are the
focus of conservation efforts.

Integrated conservation of tree species therefore includes both in situ and
ex situ action, linked by restoration, reintroduction and collection, to
support species survival. This process can be supported by research,
horticulture and education that can ultimately increase the success of
conservation efforts (Figure 1). Botanic gardens and related organizations
can play a major role in integrated plant conservation throughout the
world, and are uniquely positioned to be able to support such efforts
(Havens et al., 2006).

Figure 1. Integrated plant conservation combines in situ (on-site) and ex
situ (off-site) conservation approaches to support species survival. In
situ conservation protects species in their native habitat, while ex situ
conservation ensures plant material is available for research,
horticulture, and education activities that ultimately support
reintroduction efforts, to prevent species from going extinct. (Adapted
from Kramer et al., 2011)
------------------------------
References

Brandon, K., Redford, K.H. and Sanderson, S.E. (eds.) (1998). Parks in
Peril. People, Politics and Protected Areas. Island Press, Washington D.C.

Bullock, J.M., Aronson, J., Newton, A.C., Pywell, R.F. and Rey-Benayas,
J.M. (2011). Restoration of ecosystem services and biodiversity: conflicts
and opportunities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 26(10), 541-549.

Butchart, S.H.M., Walpole, M., Collen, B. et al. (2010). Global
biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Science, 328 (5982), 1164-1168.

Chape S., Harrison, J., Spalding, M. and Lysenko, I. (2005). Measuring the
extent and effectiveness of protected areas as an indicator for meeting
global biodiversity targets. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B, 360, 443 455.

Costanza R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B.,
Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton,
P., and Van den Belt, M.. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem
services and natural capital. Nature, 387, 253-260.

Falk, D.A. (1987). Integrated conservation strategies for endangered
plants. Natural Areas Journal, 7, 118 123.

Falk, D.A., Millar, C.I., and Olwell, P.. (1996). Restoring Diversity:
Strategies for Reintroduction of Endangered Plants. Island Press.

FAO. (2010). Global forest resources assessment, 2010   Main report. FAO
Forestry Paper 163. Rome, Italy. (Also available at
www.fao.org/forestry/fra/fra2010/en/).

FAO (2011). State of the World's Forests 2011. FAO, Rome.

Goldstein, J.H., Pejchar, L. and Daily, G.C. (2008). Using
return-on-investment to guide restoration: a case study from Hawaii.
Conservation Letters, 1, 236-243.

Havens, K., Vitt, P., Maunder, M., Guerrant, E.O. and Dixon, K. (2006). Ex
situ plant conservation and beyond. BioScience, 56(6), 525-531.

Isbell, F., Calcagno, V., Hector, A., Connolly, J., Harpole, W.S., Reich,
P.B., Scherer-Lorenzen, M., Schmid, B., Tilman, D., van Ruijven, J.,
Weigelt, A., Wilsey, B.J., Zavaleta, E.S. and Loreau, M. (2011). High plant
diversity is needed to maintain ecosystem services. Nature, 477, 199-202.

Kramer, A., Hird, A., Shaw, K., Dosman, M. and Mims, R. (2011). Conserving
North America's threatened plants: Progress report on Target 8 of the
Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. Botanic Gardens Conservation
International US.

Mansourian, S. (2005). Overview of forest restoration strategies and terms.
In Forest Restoration in Landscapes. Beyond Planting Trees, eds. S.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being:
current state and trends. Island Press, Washington D.C.

Nellemann, C. and Corcoran, E. (eds.) (2010). Dead planet, living planet -
biodiversity and ecosystem restoration for sustainable development. United
Nations Environment Programme, Arendal, Norway.
http://www.grida.no/publications/rr/dead-planet/

Newton, A.C. (2007). Forest ecology and conservation: a handbook of
techniques. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

UNEP (2009) Vital forest graphics. FAO, UNEP, UNFF. UNEP GRID Arendal,
Norway.

Vié, J.-C., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. (eds.) (2009). Wildlife in a
changing world   an analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 180 pp.

World Bank (2004). Sustaining forests: a development strategy. World Bank,
Washington DC.
   ------------------------------
*ORIGINAL SOURCE*

This article was excerpted from the original with the kind permission of
the publisher and authors from:

Oldfield, S. and Newton, A.C. 2012. Integrated conservation of tree species
by botanic gardens: a reference manual. Botanic Gardens Conservation
International, Richmond, United Kingdom.
http://www.bgci.org/files/Worldwide/News/SeptDec12/tree_species_low.pdf

Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) is an international
organisation that exists to ensure the world-wide conservation of
threatened plants, the continued existence of which are intrinsically
linked to global issues including poverty, human well-being and climate
change. BGCI represents over 700 members - mostly botanic gardens - in 118
countries. We aim to support and empower our members and the wider
conservation community so that their knowledge and expertise can be applied
to reversing the threat of extinction crisis facing one third of all plants.

Descanso House
199 Kew Road
Richmond
Surrey, UK TW9 3BW
Telephone: +44 (0)20 8332 5953
Fax: +44 (0)20 8332 5956
Web: http://www.bgci.org/
   ------------------------------
*RELATED EDITIONS OF THE OVERSTORY*

The Overstory #231--Biodiversity: ten strategies for commodity production
landscapes <http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory231.html>
The Overstory #188--Helping forests to help themselves
The Overstory #149--Live Fences, Isolated Trees, and Windbreaks: Tools
for Conserving Biodiversity
The Overstory #117--Between Wildcrafting and Monocultures
The Overstory #113--Forest Biodiversity
The Overstory #109--Cultural Landscapes
The Overstory #105--Complex Agroforests
The Overstory #93--Trees, Forests and Sacred
Groves<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory93.html>
The Overstory #90--Biodiversity and Protected
Areas<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory90.html>
The Overstory #77--Tropical Forest
Conservation<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory77.html>
The Overstory #76--Ethnoforestry<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory76.html>

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**
------------------------------

[image: Speciatry Crops book cover]<http://agroforestry.net/scps/scpsbook.html>
*By the publishers of The Overstory:* From Bamboo to Black Pepper, Cacao to
Coconut and Tea to Taro--*Specialty Crops for Pacific
Islands<http://agroforestry.net/scps/scpsbook.html>
* provides detailed cultivation, value-added, and marketing information for
over two dozen of the most important specialty crops for the tropics. Order
your copy <http://agroforestry.net/scps/scpsbook.html>.

.

<http://www.amazon.com/Overstory-Book-Cultivating-Connections-Trees/dp/0970254431>
*The Overstory Book: Cultivating Connections with Trees, Second Edition*

Now available to order from Amazon.com:
http://www.amazon.com/Overstory-Book-Cultivating-Connections-Trees/dp/0970254431

*Advanced study internship*

The people who bring you *The Overstory* e-journal now offer an 8-week advanced
study internship <http://www.agroforestry.net/internship> in tropical
agroforestry: http://www.agroforestry.net/internship.

*Article submissions*

Have you written an article in the last 5 years on a topic that you think
would interest other Overstory subscribers? Would you like it to be
circulated in edited form to subscribers in 187 countries? Then submit it
to the Overstory for consideration--it's that easy! Please read our submission
criteria <http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/ovsubm.html> before sending
us your submission: http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/ovsubm.html.

*Address changes*

Please send e-mail address changes to
overstory at agroforestry.net.

**
------------------------------
*Publisher Notes*

The Overstory is distributed by Agroforestry Net, Inc., P.O. Box 428,
Holualoa, Hawaii 96725 USA; overstory at agroforestry.net; Web site:
http://www.overstory.org

Agroforestry Net, Inc. is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit educational organization.

Editor: Craig Elevitch <http://www.craigelevitch.com>

Past editions of The Overstory: http://www.overstory.org

Support *The Overstory* by
donation<http://ovsupport.html#Anchor-Donations-57177>,
sponsorship <http://ovsupport.html#Anchor-Buy-30408>, or book
purchase<http://ovsupport.html#Anchor-Buy-41681>
.

This publication is Copyright 1997-2013 Permanent Agriculture Resources.
All Rights Reserved Worldwide. For conditions of use please contact
overstory at agroforestry.net or write to Agroforestry Net, Inc. at the
address above.

This newsletter is designed to provide agricultural information, but is
sent with the understanding that the editors and publishers are not engaged
in rendering consultation. If expert assistance is required, the services
of a professional should be sought.

Thanks for reading!

The Overstory is for private, individual use for educational,
non-commercial and informational purposes. Please read conditions for
use<http://ovconds.html>before subscribing.

*Click here to subscribe*<overstory at agroforestry.net?subject=Subscribe%20Overstory&body=I%27d%20like%20to%20subscribe%20to%20The%20Overstory%20agroforestry%20ejournal.%20%20%20Name:%20%20%20Email%20Address:%20%20%20Organization%20(or%20describe%20your%20interest%20in%20agroforestry):%20%20%20Location%20(city,%20state,%20country):%20%20%20>

or send an email to overstory at agroforestry.net with:

1) your name
2) e-mail address
3) organization or brief project description
4) your location (city, state, country)

To remove your name from our list, simply send an email with your the name
and email address under which you are subscribed to
overstory at agroforestry.net

*We will never give, trade, sell or distribute your e-mail address or
subscription information to anyone without your prior consent.*
 *
*

  | Journal Home <http://index.html> | Journal Previous
Editions<http://osprev.html>| Journal
Submissions <http://ovsubm.html> |

| Current Projects <http://www.agroforestry.net/projects.html> |
Publications <http://www.agroforestry.net/pubs/index.html> | About
Us<http://www.agroforestry.net/aboutus.html>|
Links <http://www.agroforestry.net/links.html> |

**
   **

Agroforestry Net, Inc.
PO Box 428
Holualoa, Hawaii 96725 USA
Contact us: email at agroforestry.net <e-mail at agroforestry.net>

Site comments and suggestions <webmaster at agroforestry.net>

The following physical address is associated with this mailing list:

Agroforestry Net, Inc.
PO Box 428
Holualoa, HI 96725 USA

Mailing List Powered by Dada
Mail<http://www.agroforestry.net/mail.cgi/what_is_dada_mail/>
-------------- next part --------------
An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
URL: <http://lists.plantconservation.org/pipermail/native-plants_lists.plantconservation.org/attachments/20130220/41dfb090/attachment.html>